In Lepidoptera, larval dietary experience of volatile cues can induce adult preference for these cues. However, such induction may require several generations, depending in part on the degree of specialization of the insects. In a previous study, using species of noctuid stem borers with different diet breadths, namely the polyphagous Sesamia nonagrioides, the oligophagous Busseola fusca and monophagous Busseola nairobica, it was shown that in S. nonagrioides, one generation was enough to induce a preference for vanillin in the resulting gravid females, whereas even two generations failed to induce a response in adults of Busseola spp. In this study, we checked whether a higher number of generations of exposure to a vanillin-enriched medium could induce a significant olfactory preference for this medium in the species B. fusca and B. nairobica, which have narrower host-plant utilization ranges than S. nonagrioides. Larvae were reared to the adult stage on an artificial diet enriched with vanillin for periods of from 2 to 7 or 8 generations, followed by two-choice tests on gravid females using a Y-tube olfactometer. The results showed different responses according to the species: for the oligophagous B. fusca, there was no significant effect of the conditioning, while a significant preference for the odours emitted by this new vanillin-enriched diet was recorded for the polyphagous S. nonagrioides and monophagous B. nairobica, but after different numbers of generations. In conclusion, different diet breadths seem to be associated with different levels of plasticity in the odour preference of adults. The implication of this result for insects' adaptability in a changing landscape is discussed.

Flowers of dicotyledonous plants host communities of arthropod species. We studied the community associated with dandelion (Taraxacum section Ruderalia), a complex of apomictic micro-species abundant in central Europe. Identification of microspecies in the field was impracticable. These plants produce an abundance of flowers that host arthropod communities that are not yet fully documented. We investigated species occurrence, its diurnal and seasonal variation and some of the factors that determine the abundance of the dominant species. Insect and spiders were collected from 2010 to 2012 at a locality in Prague. Whole capitula were harvested at weekly intervals and resident arthropods were identified. Diurnal variation in insect presence and the effect of pollen and microclimate on some of the species were also examined. The insect community (> 200 species) consisted mainly of species of Hymenoptera (86 spp.), Coleoptera (56 spp.), Diptera (46 spp.) and Heteroptera (23 spp.). The most abundant were Thysanoptera (2 spp.). Pollen eaters/collectors and nectar feeders dominated over predators and occasional visitors. From April to mid-August, the insect community was dominated by Coleoptera, and later by Diptera and Hymenoptera. Except for Meligethes spp. and species breeding in the capitula, the insects occupied flowers during the daytime when the flowers were open (10-12 h in spring and only 2-4 h in late summer). The presence of Meligethes spp. in particular flowers was associated with the presence of pollen; the occurrence of Byturus ochraceus with pollen and flower temperature. Although pollination is not necessary, dandelion plants produce both nectar and pollen. The community of arthropods that visit dandelion flowers is rich despite their being ephemeral. The composition of local faunas of flower visitors, presence of floral rewards and flower microclimate are important factors determining the composition of the flower community.

The complete mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of Spilarctia robusta (Lepidoptera: Noctuoidea: Erebidae) was sequenced and analyzed. The circular mitogenome is made up of 15,447 base pairs (bp). It contains a set of 37 genes, with the gene complement and order similar to that of other lepidopterans. The 12 protein coding genes (PCGs) have a typical mitochondrial start codon (ATN codons), whereas cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) gene utilizes unusually the CAG codon as documented for other lepidopteran mitogenomes. Four of the 13 PCGs have incomplete termination codons, the cox1, nad4 and nad6 with a single T, but cox2 has TA. It comprises six major intergenic spacers, with the exception of the A+T-rich region, spanning at least 10 bp in the mitogenome. The nucleotide composition of the genome is greatly A+T biased (81.09%), with a negative AT skewness (-0.007), indicating the presence of fewer As than Ts, similar to other Noctuoidea. The A+T-rich region is 343 bp long, and contains some conserved regions, including an "ATAGA" motif followed by a 19 bp poly-T stretch, a microsatellite-like (AT)₉ and a poly-A element, a characteristic shared with other lepidopteran mitogenomes. Phylogenetic analysis, based on 13 PCGs using Maximum likelihood methods revealed that S. robusta belongs to the superfamily Noctuoidea.

Clear-cutting, the main method of harvesting in many forests in the world, causes a series of dramatic environmental changes to the forest habitat and removes habitat resources for arboreal and epigeal species. It results in considerable changes in the composition of both plant and animal communities. Ants have many critical roles in the maintenance and functioning of forest ecosystems. Therefore, the response of ants to clear-cutting and the time it takes for an ant community to recover after clear-cutting are important indicators of the effect of this harvesting technique on the forest ecosystem. We investigated ground-dwelling ant communities during secondary succession of deciduous forests in Transylvania, Romania. Using space-for-time substitution, we explored a chronosequence from clear-cuts to mature forests (> 120 years). The object was to determine if cutting has measurable effects on ant community structure, and if ant species richness differs between successional stages. We recorded a total of 24 species of ants, 11 characteristic of forests and seven of open landscape. Ant species richness was higher in clear-cuts compared to closed-canopy and old stands. Number of ant individuals was highest in young age classes and lowest in closed-canopy age classes. There was no drastic change in species richness during the succession, however differences in community composition at different stages were recorded. Open landscape species are able to rapidly colonize following disturbance but disappear when the forest sites mature and many forest ant species are capable of surviving clear cutting.

Phylogeny and higher classification of the cerambycid subfamily Lepturinae remain controversial. Here we report the results of a cytogenetic study of 18 species currently classified in Lepturini and 12 species in other tribes of Lepturinae (1 in Oxymirini, 1 in Rhamnusiini and 10 in Rhagiini) from Western Europe. The male sex chromosome formula is XY in all Rhagiini, Oxymirini and in Grammoptera ruficornis in the Lepturini (whose tribal placement may be doubtful), and X0 in all the remaining Lepturini. The rarity of the X0 formula in other Cerambycidae indicates that the Y chromosome was lost in a common ancestor of the Lepturini or a subgroup thereof, indicating its monophyletic origin. The number of chromosomes is stable in the Lepturini that lack a Y chromosome (19,X/20,XX in males and females, respectively), but varies from 20 to 24 in the remaining genera, probably the consequence of evolution by chromosome fission. Whereas all the males with 19 or 20 chromosomes have an early gametogenesis, which is achieved before the imago stage, the species with more than 20 chromosomes seem to have a delayed male gametogenesis, which is still active in the young imagoes. The species of Rhagiini with 22 chromosomes may constitute a monophyletic group.

Rab proteins are small GTP-binding proteins and are the largest family in the Ras GTPase superfamily and mediate vesicular transport in cells. Diverse insulin-like peptides, such as bombyxin, are synthesized in the brain and secreted into the haemolymph by the corpus allatum (CA). In the brain of Bombyx mori, Rabs are expressed in a specific area; however, which Rabs actually link the secretion of bombyxin remains unknown. A double-staining analysis of nine Rabs (Rab1, 3, 6, 7, 14, 21, 26, 39 and X4) and bombyxin indicated that Rab3-, Rab7-, Rab39- and RabX4-immunohistochemical reactivity (ir) areas overlapped with bombyxin-ir in the brain and CA in B. mori, while Rab6-, Rab14- and Rab21-irs partially overlapped in the CA. Rab1-ir occurred in the other immunopositive areas in CA. Rab26-ir did not occur in the brain. Rab39-ir occurred in UNC104, Rab39- effector, -immunopositive neurons in the brain and CA. Thus, Rab3, 7, 39 and X4 may regulate the exocytosis of bombyxin.

While the progress of the spread of invasive species of insects in new geographical areas are usually intensively monitored, the decline of these species often escape attention and is poorly documented. In this study, we record the decline in abundance of Gastrophysa viridula (DeGeer), an invasive oligophagous consumer of dock (Rumex spp.). This species originally inhabited Alpine regions. In the late 1800s, G. viridula was recorded in montane areas in the Czech Republic and then throughout this country. Gastrophysa viridula was very abundant in 1995-1999, when we found it in all of the 177 stands of R. obtusifolius inspected in western Czech Republic. In a repeated study of its occurrence in the same area from 2019-2020, this species was present in < 30% of 434 of the stands inspected and was only abundant (≥ 55% of plants in the stand infested by G. viridula) in < 4% of these stands. Thus the local occurrence and abundance of G. viridula had decreased significantly. Of the possible reasons for this decline the most probable are the effect of climate warming on host plant seasonality, changes in agricultural use of grasslands and fragmentation of large stands of dock.

Plants defend themselves by producing various volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that have direct and indirect effects on insect herbivores. Their production is often specific to the plant and herbivore species involved, with some herbivores being able to manipulate their production. Here, we used passive volatile sampling using polydimethysiloxane (PDMS) tubing to compare VOCs produced by control, mined and galled oak leaves in the field. Leaves mined by a microlepidopteran leaf-miner (Phyllonorycter harrisella) produced a lower amount of two sesquiterpenes and an increased amount of eucalyptol. In contrast, leaves galled by the gall wasp (Neuroterus quercusbaccarum) did not produce a lower amount of any of the VOC measured when compared to the control. They produced a higher amount of farnesene, β-bourbonene and eucalyptol. Some of these VOC are known for their anti-herbivore function. In a second experiment, we treated the experimental leaves with the phytohormone methyl jasmonate (MeJA) to determine if leaf-miners or gallers reduced the overall inducibility of infested leaves. MeJA induced a sixteen-fold increase in VOC production. However, there was no difference in VOC production of control, mined and galled leaves treated with MeJA. Our results show that up- and down-regulation of VOCs can vary among leaves infested by different herbivores. More experiments are needed to determine if this is due to manipulation by the herbivores themselves or due to a defensive response of the plant.

In bush-crickets, males produce a calling song to announce their presence to females. Females ready to mate respond either by a phonotactic approach or signal their presence acoustically by establishing a kind of duet. This duetting behaviour is typical of phaneropterid bush-crickets, of which many species in Europe are flightless. In the long-winged genus Phaneroptera, the females also respond acoustically to the male calling song, which is quite similar in the three west European species in this genus. After acoustical contact, however, the behaviour of males and females of the three species differ markedly. In P. nana, males and females engage in a duet in which the female responds to each syllable of the male song (and he approaches her). In P. falcata, the female only responds to certain elements of the male song that are produced at long intervals. However, after her response the male does not change its song or its position, but often increases its singing activity (and the female approaches him). In P. sparsa the female only responds to particular, very complicated and soft elements of the male song, which are typically repeated at intervals of several to many minutes. After hearing the response, the male drastically changes its song by producing only the soft elements. These parts of the song contain syllables with a unique spectral composition and others that may threaten eavesdropping rivals. In this species both sexes probably move towards each other during mate localization. At present, we can only speculate about the adaptive nature of the different strategies.

Dennis R.L.H. 2020: BUTTERFLY BIOLOGY SYSTEMS. CONNECTIONS AND INTERACTIONS IN LIFE HISTORY AND BEHAVIOUR. CAB International, Wallingford, 504 pp. ISBN 9781789243574. Price GBP 150.00, EUR 180.00, USD 210.00.

Saproxylic organisms play a key role in a variety of forest ecosystem functions, which result in an increase in overall forest productivity and biodiversity. At present, dead wood is frequently removed from exploited forests. Estimating the effect of current forest management on biodiversity, and what gain in biodiversity would result from implementing restoration programs, requires the use of standardized sampling protocols. These protocols need to be suitable for use in different sampling areas and cost effective. In this paper, we developed, tested, and optimized a method for sampling saproxylic insects during a single visit to a sample site (i.e., the "grab-and-go" method). In the spring of 2011, we collected samples of downed decaying small and medium diameter wood debris in two Italian beech forests: Sega di Ala (Alps) and Vallombrosa (Apennines). We used ex situ emergence traps in the laboratory to collect the beetles emerging from the wood sampled. At both sites, the minimum number of wood samples that resulted in a satisfactory description of the saproxylic beetle assemblage was 20. Wood moisture, mean diameter, and geographical location were significantly associated with the beetle assemblages. We discuss the implications of using the "grab-and-go" method in large-scale forest monitoring programs. In this context, we recommend collecting at each site twenty 50 cm-long samples of wood lying on top of the litter, with a diameter of 12 ± 2 cm, cortex cover < 50%, and at Hunter's stage of decay class 2.

Exposed riverine sediments are unique riparian environments that exhibit high biodiversity and harbor many specialist species. Ground beetles are the most well studied inhabitants within these environments where they are often sampled using pitfall traps. In order to develop conservation measures for species occupying these habitats a logical first step is to refine sampling methods so that proper biodiversity assessments can be carried out. To that end, the effectiveness of two pitfall trap designs (standard trap vs. barrier trap) was evaluated. Over three sampling periods we collected 5,186 individuals represented by 43 species. Barrier traps proved to be superior, yielding significantly greater numbers of individuals (n = 3,456 vs. 1,730) than standard traps. Additionally, we collected more ground beetle species (37 vs. 30) in barrier traps than in standard pitfall traps. This study supports the rationale for deployment of more than one trap design to avoid deficiencies exhibited by a single type.

Clear-cuts in production forests provide an open, sunny environment, with an abundance of nectar, as well as exposed soil and woody debris. This makes them a potential habitat for several groups of insects that typically use open habitats like grassland, including those species that visit flowers. In the current study, we used colour pan traps to catch flower-visiting species. Study sites were selected according to age (2-8 yrs since clear-cut) and land-use history (forest or meadow 150 yrs ago). We caught and identified solitary bees (395 specimens belonging to 59 species), social bees (831/16), other Hymenoptera (367/66), Syrphidae (256/31), and beetles (Lepturinae & Cetoniinae; 11,409/12). Age of the clear-cut strongly affected species composition as well as several groups and species, with most species caught mainly in the younger clear-cuts. Flower abundance statistically affected several groups and species, but inferring causation is difficult due to the flower-richness bias in pan trap catches. Bare soil and woody debris were important for the insect assemblage sampled, while bare rock was not. Although the majority of the insects caught were forest species, about one third of the species were associated with open, agricultural sites and hence seem to be able to locate and exploit resources in clear-cuts.

We used the COI marker, the most popular DNA barcode for the animal kingdom, to assess the taxonomic status of Corsican populations of eight groups of species of ants that occur both on Corsica and the European mainland. (i) In two groups, we detected no genetic differentiation between Corsica and the continent. Absence of differentiation across varieties of Aphaenogaster spinosa within Corsica confirm current synonymies. (ii) In four groups, we detected strong genetic differentiation between Corsica and the continent, confirming recent taxonomic studies based on morphology for three of these groups. For the fourth group, we propose that the status of Corsican populations be raised from sub-species to species: Temnothorax cordieri stat. rev. (iii) In one group, the genetic differentiation and morphological differences do not support splitting and as a consequence we propose to accept the previous synonymy Temnothorax tuberum = Temnothorax melanocephalus. (iv) In Myrmica scabrinodis and Myrmica spinosior, COI sequence information is largely inconsistent with morphology and geography, not only on Corsica but also on the mainland, and should not be used to support taxonomic decisions. Although the use of COI has drawbacks, it is globally consistent with morphology and can be used to complement morphological ant taxonomy. We provide an updated checklist of ants of Corsica.

Because it is an important pest of rice, Abidama liuensis Metcalf is well documented in terms of its bioecology and control. However, there are few studies on the biology of this pest. In this study, a technique was developed for rearing this insect under laboratory conditions (26 ± 2°C; 75 ± 3% RH; and 12L : 12D photoperiod) and its immature stages are described. Egg development is divided into four stages, of which S1 took the longest time (accounting for 11.70% of total developmental time); 90% of the eggs that completed S2, hatched. Nymphal instars can be distinguished by body size, colour and other morphological features. Total developmental period of immature stages was approximately 50 d, with the averages of the five stadia 5.18, 4.33, 5.28, 10.41 and 8.5 days, respectively. Using this rearing technique, it is possible to rear A. liuensis throughout the year, which will facilitate further ecological, behavioural and molecular studies and the development of ways of controlling this insect in the field.

Temperature is an important factor for invertebrates. Social insects build nests, which along with their ability to thermoregulate, provide shelter from extreme temperatures. However, for many species of ants the most common method of controlling the temperature inside a nest is to choose a suitable nest site. During a field experiment, the choice of nest site by the acorn ant Temnothorax crassispinus, a species which lives in coniferous and mixed forests, was studied. It typically occupies ephemeral nest sites and can move to a new nest site several times in one season. It was predicted that in early spring, dark coloured nest sites would be warmer and thus more frequently occupied by ant colonies. Contrary to this prediction, no difference was recorded in the frequency with which dark and lighter coloured nests were occupied. However, also in contrast to the prediction, in forest in early spring the difference in temperature inside different coloured nests was small. Thus, other features of nests, e.g., volume of cavity, are probably more important in determining nest site selection by this ant.

We present an open (publicly available) and updatable database of the karyotypes of Blattodea which is available at http://web.natur.cuni.cz/zoologie/arthropods/blattodeadatabase/index.html. This database currently contains data on chromosome numbers and sex chromosome systems for 355 (209 cockroaches and 146 termites) cytogenetically and/or geographically distinct populations of 229 species (138 cockroaches and 91 termites). When available, data on chromosome morphology and fundamental number are also included. As this summary of the data on Blattodea cytogenetics follows current taxonomy and phylogeny it enabled us to discuss hypotheses on karyotype evolution. We also point out some cytogenetically interesting phenomena such as extensive karyotype differentiation at low taxonomic levels in some lineages and the change from the X0 sex chromosome system, which is present in cockroaches, to systems with multiple neo-sex chromosomes, present in termites. We encourage the use of modern cytogenetic methods in research on Blattodea cytogenetics to uncover more detailed mechanisms of karyotype evolution in this insect order. We also provide a brief summary of the history of cytogenetic research in Blattodea.

The oldest butterfly fossil known, which was formed about 55 Ma in what is now Denmark, is described. The fragments of its forewing venation indicates it belongs to the Hesperiidae. Further reconstruction indicates that it fits in the Coeliadinae and is close to the extant genera Hasora and Burara. It is here described as Protocoeliades kristenseni gen. et sp. n. It is the first butterfly fossil found on a continent (Europe) where its closest relatives do not currently occur. Its position on the phylogenetic tree of the Coeliadinae and its importance in understanding the time dimension in the evolution of butterflies, and their ecological and biogeographic implications are discussed.

The ladybird, Serangium japonicum (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), is one of the most important predators of whiteflies in China, however, the suitability of different kinds of prey and nutritional requirements of this predator are poorly studied. The objectives of the present study were to investigate the pre-imaginal development, percentage survival of immatures, adult longevity and fecundity of S. japonicum when reared on two different species of prey, mixed ages of the cotton whitefly Bemisia tabaci Gennadius (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) biotype-B (i.e., eggs and nymphs) and green peach aphid Myzus persicae (Sulzer) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) in order to quantify their relative suitability as prey under laboratory conditions of 25 ± 1°C, 50 ± 10% RH and a photoperiod of 16L : 8D. The results of this study indicate that the total developmental period (from egg to adult) was shorter when they were fed on B. tabaci (18.29 ± 0.13 days) than on M. persicae (19.85 ± 0.22 days). The percentage survival of the immatures, growth index, development rate, adult fresh weight, fecundity and percentage of eggs hatching were higher and the pre-oviposition period was significantly shorter when S. japonicum were fed on B. tabaci than on M. persicae. In contrast, there was no significant difference in their longevity and oviposition period when fed on B. tabaci and M. persicae. The results indicate that as a diet for S. japonicum M. persicae is inferior to B. tabaci. This is the first record of S. japonicum being able to complete its development feeding exclusively on M. persicae. Since B. tabaci and M. persicae often simultaneously occur in vegetable fields, these results indicate that it is likely that S. japonicum could be utilized to control mixed populations of aphids and whiteflies, and furthers our understanding of ladybird population dynamics in the field in relation to the availability of different species of prey.

There are records of glands that produce sexual pheromones that are released into the environment or applied directly on sexual partners. Within Opiliones (Arachnida), several harvestmen in the suborder Laniatores have sexually dimorphic glands on legs I and IV, the mode of use of which is recorded only in two species but their function is unknown: while walking, males rub the glands against the substrate or against their body. Here we test an alternative and non-exclusive hypothesis that the glands present on the legs of male Gryne perlata (Cosmetidae) produce contact pheromones used in mating. We predicted that males would touch the females with the gland openings or with other male body parts previously rubbed by these glands. We also predicted that there are chemoreceptors on those parts of the females where males touch them. We analyzed 13 videos of G. perlata mating, a species in which the males have glands on legs I and IV of unknown function. We also analyzed 14 videos of Discocyrtus pectinifemur (Gonyleptidae) mating as a control, a species that lacks these glands. Finally, we looked for chemoreceptors on the legs of female G. perlata using a scanning electron microscope. During copulation, males of both species rubbed the legs of females with their first pair of legs, but not with the regions of these legs where the openings of the glands are. The fourth pair of legs were only used to support the body. Rubbing other body parts of the female by males with their glands was not observed during mating. Setae on the legs of the female did not have tip pores and therefore do not seem to be chemoreceptors. We therefore did not find any evidence that these sexually dimorphic glands in G. perlata release contact pheromones during mating.

In this paper the strictly attaphilous Central- and South American genus Phoxonotus Marseul, 1862 is revised. Based on the structure of their antennal cavities, the species of Phoxonotus are newly split into two subgenera: Phoxonotus Marseul, 1862 and Alienosternus subgen. n. (type species Saprinus venustus Erichson, 1834). The subgenus Phoxonotus contains three species: Phoxonotus (P.) tuberculatus Marseul, 1862 (French Guyana, Suriname, Brazil: Pará, Mato Grosso), P. (P.) lectus Lewis, 1902 (eastern Peru) and the newly described P. parvotuberculatus sp. n. (Guatemala, Costa Rica). The subgenus Alienosternus subgen. n. contains two species: Phoxonotus (Alienosternus) venustus (Erichson, 1834) (Brazil: Bahia) and P. (Alienosternus) fryi Lewis, 1879 (Brazil: Rio de Janeiro and Bahia). P. tuberculatus Marseul, 1862 is synonymized with P. suturalis Lewis, 1907, syn. n. Lectotype of Phoxonotus fryi Lewis, 1879 is designated. Genitalia of the males for the species for which they are available are illustrated, most type specimens are imaged and scanning electron micrographs of P. tuberculatus provided. Mouthparts and sensory structures of the antennal club of P. tuberculatus are depicted.

The poplar lace bug, Monosteira unicostata (Mulsant & Rey), is one of the most important pests of almond trees in the Mediterranean area. The developmental times and survival of the immature stages of this tingid were determined at 16, 19, 22, 25, 28, 31, 34, 35.5, 37 and 39°C, 60 ± 10% relative humidity and under a 16L : 8D photoperiod. At 16 and 39°C, 100% mortality was recorded during immature development, with the egg, first and second nymphal instars the most susceptible. The lowest mortality was recorded at 28°C (9.8%). As temperature increased, the total developmental period decreased and the shortest duration was recorded at 34°C (12.1-12.2 d). At 37°C, the developmental time was slightly longer (12.5-13.0 d). The thermal requirement for complete development, from egg to adult, was 229.2 DD. Several non-linear models were fitted to the developmental rate data recorded for the range of temperatures tested. Selection criteria indicated that the Lactin model best described the relationship between developmental rate and temperature. It predicted lower and upper thermal thresholds for the complete preimaginal period of 14.8 and 39.1°C, respectively. Models were validated by comparing their predictions for the total preimaginal period with the developmental times recorded at three different fluctuating temperature regimes. The Lactin model again best fitted the actual durations recorded. This model could be used in IPM programs for predicting the moment of occurrence of the most damaging generations of this species.

Duponchelia fovealis Zeller is a polyphagous insect that has been recently reported attacking strawberry plants (Fragaria x ananassa Duchesne). Despite its economic importance there are few studies on this pest because it is difficult to rear it in the laboratory. With a constant supply of insects, studies on alternative methods of pest control can be conducted. This study aimed at developing an artificial diet for rearing D. fovealis with biological characteristics similar to those reared on their natural diet. This study was carried out in a climate-controlled room (25°C ± 2°C, RH 70% ± 10%, and 14L : 10D). The natural diet consisted of 'San Andreas' strawberry leaves (D1), while the artificial diet (D2) was developed in which beans, casein, soy protein, yeast and wheat germ are used as sources of protein. Five instars were identified. D. fovealis completed its life cycle in 38 and 40 days when fed D1 and D2, respectively. Survival was highest for the larvae fed the artificial diet. Females fed D1 lay a mean of 300.2 ± 62.3 eggs, while those fed D2, 220.3 ± 41.8 eggs. The artificial diet is suitable for the continuous rearing of D. fovealis in the laboratory.

The tendency for self-superparasitism and it's effects on the quality of the parasitoid Ooencyrtus pityocampae (Mercet) (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) in parasitizing a new laboratory host, Philosamia ricini (Danovan) (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae), were investigated. In this study, female parasitoids of various ages (1-, 3- and 5-day-old) were tested individually. Parasitoids were provided with 1-day-old P. ricini eggs at ratios of 5, 10, 20, 30 and 40 host eggs per wasp. The tendency to superparasitize was dependent on the female's age and host density. Five-day-old females showed a strong tendency to superparasitize at low host densities. The development time of wasps in superparasitized eggs was longer than that of wasps in singly parasitized eggs. The size and longevity of adult parasitoids decreased significantly with superparasitism. This work contributes to the development of an efficient mass rearing and laboratory rearing of the parasitoid O. pityocampae using a new host.

Thermal requirements for flight in butterflies is determined by a combination of external factors, behaviour and physical constraints. Thorax temperature of 152 butterflies was monitored with an infra-red thermometer in controlled laboratory conditions. The temperature at take-off varied from 13.4°C, for a female Heteronympha merope to 46.3°C, for a female Junonia villida. Heteronympha merope, an understorey species, had the lowest recorded take-off temperatures, with females flying at a much lower thorax temperatures than males. Among the tested butterfly species, warming-up rate was positively correlated with take-off temperature and negatively with body mass. Wing loading is a major variable in determining the thorax flight temperature. Butterflies with the highest wing-loadings experienced the highest thorax temperatures at take-off. A notable exception to this rule is Trapezites symmomus, the only Hesperiidae of our data set, which had thorax flight temperatures of 31.5°C and 34.5°C, well within the range of the observed butterflies, despite a wing load ca. five times higher. The high thorax temperature recorded in J. villida is probably linked to its high flight speed. The results highlight the importance of physical constraints such as body size on the thermal requirements for flight across a range of butterfly species.

In herbivorous insects plant volatiles have an important role in locating mates and oviposition sites. The aim of this study was to test the antennal and behavioural responses of females of Isoceras sibirica Alpheraky (Lepidoptera: Cossidae) to the volatiles produced by Asparagus officinalis L. Electroantennographs (EAG) revealed that the antennae of I. sibirica respond in a dose dependent way to hexanal, limonene, 2-ethyl-2-hexenal, linalool and α-terpineol. In flight tunnel experiments, 2-ethyl-2-hexenal, α-terpineol, hexanal, ρ-cymene and geraniol were significantly more attractive to females of I. sibirica than other chemicals. These findings indicate that host volatiles are important for host recognition in I. sibirica.

The expression of sexually dimorphic phenotypes from a shared genome between males and females is a longstanding puzzle in evolutionary biology. Increasingly, research has made use of transcriptomic technology to examine the molecular basis of sexual dimorphism through gene expression studies, but even this level of detail misses the metabolic processes that ultimately link gene expression with the whole organism phenotype. We use metabolic profiling in Drosophila melanogaster to complete this missing step, with a view to examining variation in male and female metabolic profiles, or metabolomes, throughout development. We show that the metabolome varies considerably throughout larval, pupal and adult stages. We also find significant sexual dimorphism in the metabolome, although only in pupae and adults, and the extent of dimorphism increases throughout development. We compare this to transcriptomic data from the same population and find that the general pattern of increasing sex differences throughout development is mirrored in RNA expression. We discuss our results in terms of the usefulness of metabolic profiling in linking genotype and phenotype to more fully understand the basis of sexually dimorphic phenotypes.

Seasonal polyphenism in adults may be a season-specific adaptation of the adult stage and/or a by-product of adaptive plasticity of the juvenile stages. The swallowtail butterfly Papilio xuthus L. exhibits seasonal polyphenism controlled by photoperiod. Adults emerging in spring from pupae that spend winter in diapause have smaller bodies than adults emerging in summer from pupae that do not undergo diapause. Pupal diapause is induced by short-day conditions typical of autumn. To explore the interactive effects of temperature and developmental pathways on the variation in adult body size in P. xuthus, we reared larvae at two temperatures (20°C, 25°C) under two photoperiods (12L : 12D and 16L : 8D). Pupal weight and adult forewing length were greater in the generation that did not undergo diapause and were greater at 25°C than at 20°C. Thus, body size differences were greatest between the individuals that were reared at the longer day length and higher temperature and did not undergo diapause and those that were reared at the shorter day length and lower temperature and did undergo diapause. Unlike in other Lepidoptera, larvae of individuals that undergo diapause had shorter developmental times and higher growth rates than those that did not undergo diapause. This developmental plasticity may enable this butterfly to cope with the unpredictable length of the growing season prior to the onset of winter. Our results indicate that there are unexplored variations in the life history strategy of multivoltine Lepidoptera.

The Stegana undulata species group is revised and eight new species described: S. (Steganina) flaviclypeata Chen & Chen, sp. n., S. (S.) flavipalpata Chen & Chen, sp. n., S. (S.) leucothorax Chen & Chen, sp. n., S. (S.) melanocheilota Chen & Chen, sp. n. and S. (S.) melanothorax Chen & Chen, sp. n. from southern China, and S. (S.) flaviscutellata Chen & Chen, sp. n., S. (S.) nigriclypeata Chen & Chen, sp. n. and S. (S.) nigripalpata Chen & Chen, sp. n. from eastern Malaysia. A key to all the species examined based on morphological data is provided. Based on DNA sequence data of the mitochondrial ND2 and COI genes, the relationship among six Chinese species of the undulata group and that of the S. coleoptrata and S. nigrolimbata species groups of the same subgenus is investigated, using S. emeiensis of the subgenus Stegana s. str. as an out-group.

A novel panel of 16 microsatellite markers, obtained by pyrosequencing of enriched genomic libraries, is reported for the flightless European bushcricket Ephippiger diurnus (Dufour) (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae). Five multiplex and one simplex PCR protocols were optimized, and the polymorphism at the 16 loci was assessed in two natural populations from southern France. The mean allele number and (expected mean heterozygosity) were 8.94 (0.71) and 6.57 (0.70), respectively, in each population. Several loci were at Hardy-Weinberg disequilibrium (HWD), possibly due to the incidence of null alleles. The occurrence of null alleles has been previously reported for this species, and it is a common feature of microsatellite loci in Orthoptera. Cross-amplification tests demonstrated the transferability of some of these loci to other ephippigerine species. The microsatellite loci reported here substantially increase the number of available loci for this species and will afford an accurate picture of E. diurnus phylogeography, the genetic structure of its populations, and an improved understanding of the evolution of male song and other sexually-selected traits in this highly variable species.