Planthoppers (Delphacidae), leafhoppers (Cicadellidae) and froghoppers (Aphrophoridae) (Hemiptera: Auchenorrhyncha) caught during day and night sampling at a height of 200 m above ground at Cardington, Bedfordshire, UK, during eight summers (between 1999 and 2007) were consolidated with high-altitude catches made over England in the 1930s. Comparisons were made with other auchenorrhynchan trapping results from northwest Europe, which were indicative of migration. The migratory abilities in the species concerned were then interpreted in terms of various life-history traits or ecological characteristics, such as ontogenetic, diel and seasonal flight patterns, voltinism, habitat preferences, and host plant affinity. In contrast to some other areas of the world (North America, East Asia), the migratory abilities of most Auchenorrhyncha species in northwest Europe is poorly understood, and thus the present study draws together, and complements, fragmentary information on this topic as a basis for further research.

On the ventral tube of males of Onychiuroides granulosus (Stach, 1934) there is a male ventral organ, which consists of two groups of four setae that are thickened, slightly flattened and bent. All setae of the male ventral organ are inserted in a richly sculptured cuticle. At the base of each seta there are a few large cells (basal cells) that have large irregular nuclei that contain a large amount of heterochromatin. In the cytoplasm of the basal cells there are numerous mitochondria, ribosomes and a rich system of endoplasmic reticulum. The plasma membrane of the basal cells forms richly folded, deep invaginations, filled with a dense material, which also occurs in particular setae and on their surface. The present study indicates that the male ventral organ is secretory and does not confirm its previously suggested sensory function.

The function and structure of the ovipositor in Hymenoptera have been studied intensively, although there is a lack of information on the external sheaths. We provide here a contribution on the structure of the external sheaths of the ovipositor of the parasitic wasp Aphidius ervi, in particular the secretory structure is described for the first time. These glands are made up of a large epithelial structure that consists a single layer of large secretory cells that occupy most of the lumen of the valve and belong to gland cell class 1. Based on the different features of the glands, a lubricating and/or host marking function is hypothesized and discussed.

The nominal genus Tasactes Faust, 1894, consisting of two originally included nominal species from Myanmar, is rediscovered for the first time since being erected. Adult weevils herein assigned to the taxonomically re-defined Tasactes were abundant in forest floor litter at five localities in China (Yunnan and Sichuan), plus one specimen is available from Shaanxi and three from Nepal. Phylogenetic analysis of a 2,275 bp matrix concatenated from one mitochondrial (COI) and two nuclear markers (ITS2 and 28S) revealed that the monophyletic Tasactes consists of eight evolutionary significant terminal clades, either allopatric (three) or sympatric (two on Cang Shan in Yunnan and three on Mount Emei in Sichuan). The genus Tasactes is nested within the monophyletic Stromboscerini, while the tribe is sister to monophyletic Dryophthorus. The two morphological diagnostic characters of Tasactes, which are unique within the tribe, are the transversely truncated antennal club and conically projecting velvety apex of the club. So defined, Tasactes renders the genus Orthosinus paraphyletic. Considering the taxonomic neglect and uncertainties surrounding nominal Stromboscerini, all herein reported members of this tribe, including the Tasactes, are not assigned to Linnaean species. This paper illustrates the "clogging taxonomy" phenomenon, in which obscure historical names render taxonomic assignment of newly sampled specimens precarious. All the data used herein (localities, sequences, specimen images) are available online in public datasets dx.doi.org/10.5883/DS-TASACT1 and dx.doi.org/10.5883/DS-TASACT2.

Aphids play an important role in the life of many ant species supplying them with energy-rich carbohydrate food and in exchange receiving some degree of protection from natural enemies. This study focused on the degree of protection different ants provide myrmecophilous aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae) in multispecies ant communities. Field investigations were carried out in steppe and forest plant associations in Siberia. The potential level of aggressiveness of six ant species (Formica rufa Linnaeus, F. pratensis Retzius, Lasius fuliginosus (Latreille), L. niger (Linnaeus), Camponotus saxatilis Ruzsky and Myrmica rubra Linnaeus) towards imagines and larvae of ladybirds and lacewings and larvae of hoverflies was tested in the laboratory. A comparative analysis of the occurrence of aphidophages in colonies of the aphid Chaitophorus populeti Panzer and of all aphid-symbionts tended by different ants in the study area has shown that the degree of protection of myrmecophilous aphids from natural enemies significantly differs among ants and is positively correlated with ant colony size. On the whole, the degree of protection of myrmecophilous aphids from aphidophages depends both on the potential level of aggressiveness of ants and their foraging strategy when collecting honeydew (degree of specialisation among honeydew collectors). As the dominant ants Formica s. str. were the most aggressive and provided aphids with the highest degree of protection, we suppose that these ants have the most important influence on the survival of the symbionts in multispecies ant communities whereas the other ants, which live in small colonies of about 10²-10³ workers, appear at least partially to take advantage of the mutualistic relationships of the dominant ants.

The Australian species of the genus Coelioxys Latreille are revised. Six species are recognized: Coelioxys albolineata Cockerell, 1905; Coelioxys froggatti Cockerell, 1911; Coelioxys reginae Cockerell, 1905; Coelioxys weinlandi Schulz, 1904 and two new species: Coelioxys julia sp. n. and Coelioxys tasmaniana sp. n. Three names are synonymized: Coelioxys biroi Friese, 1909 syn. n. and Coelioxys albolineata darwiniensis Cockerell, 1929 syn. n. under Coelioxys albolineata, and Coelioxys victoriae Rayment, 1935 syn. n. under Coelioxys froggatti. Species descriptions and redescriptions, illustrations, distribution maps, floral records and a key to both sexes of all species are provided.

A study of the relationships between 21 southern European, Moroccan and Turkish populations of the Merodon avidus species complex was carried out. Based on a parallel study of type material from several museums, documented diagnostic morphological characters, season of adult activity and geographical distribution, we justify the use of the following names for three closely related taxa in this complex: M. avidus (Rossi, 1790), M. moenium (Wiedemann, 1822), and M. ibericus Vujić nom. n. (new name for M. bicolor Gil Collado, 1930, preoccupied by M. bicolor Walker, 1852). Neotypes of Merodon avidus, M. spinipes (Fabricius, 1794) and M. quadrilineatus Lioy, 1864 are designated. Lectotype of Merodon moenium (Wiedemann in Meigen, 1822) is designated here. A cluster analysis of DNA barcoding sequences clearly separated M. ibericus, but not M. avidus and M. moenium, even though the lack of shared haplotypes, analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA), pairwise Φ_st values together with allozyme and ecological niche analyses revealed statistically significant percentage of variation among all three species in the Merodon avidus complex. Analysis of 5 diagnostic enzyme loci revealed the presence of genetic differentiation among the M. avidus/moenium complex populations investigated (F_st = 0.654) and species-specific alleles were found at the AAT locus. The presence of two separate related taxa within the M. avidus/moenium complex was further supported by an UPGMA tree based on Nei's (1978) genetic distances. The value of Nei's measure of genetic identity (I = 0.520) between two large (meta) populations of M. avidus and M. moenium suggest that these taxa are sibling species. Populations from Djerdap (Serbia) confirmed the presence of temporal divergence between these species at a locality where they occur sympatrically, while spring and autumn populations from Umag (Croatia) provide an example of morphological plasticity within the species M. avidus. Ecological niche analysis contributed to the species delimitation. Review of the available genetic and ecological data confirmed our hypothesis that the M. avidus species complex, in addition to M. ibericus Vujić nom. n. from the Iberian Peninsula, consists of two sibling species in the rest of Europe and indicated their recent speciation.

We studied the demography, movement, behaviour and choice of nectar plants by adults of Aporia crataegi. This study was done in a dense network of different types of habitats (total size of study area 16.26 ha) from open landscape to shrubland, the latter being a result of abandonment of traditional agricultural practices such as extensive mowing and grazing. Total population size was estimated to be approximately 1700 and 2700 for females and males, respectively. Median and maximum distances moved by males were 134 and 3493 m, and by females 138 and 3165 m, respectively. The average lifespan was ca. 7.1 and 7.5 days, with maximum recorded lifespans of 21 and 17 days for males and females, respectively. The greater capture probability recorded for males indicates their high activity, as they spend most of their time in flight patrolling and searching for mates. A parabolic recruitment curve and protandry were also recorded. Both sexes are highly mobile. The spatial distribution of both sexes was roughly similar. The adult behaviour differed in different habitats, with more time spent feeding and resting when nectar plants were plentiful and more time spent flying when they were rare. Although adults utilized nine nectar sources, only two were recorded in over 80% of all the feeding occasions. In order to re-establish open grassland with some shrubland, traditional and mosaic management of the landscape should be revived at least to some extent.

Mariner-like elements (MLEs) are widespread Class II transposable elements in insects that are subdivided into several subfamilies. In the current study, we carried out in silico analysis and in vitro experiments to identify MLEs belonging to the irritans subfamily in two cecidomyiid flies, Mayetiola destructor and M. hordei. In silico investigation of M. destructor genome allowed the identification of 25 irritans-like elements, which were mostly defective due to several mutations. These defective forms might be the remnants of active elements that ancestrally invaded the host genome. Structural analyses, including signature motifs and transposase-encoding ORFs, revealed structural heterogeneity and the presence of two full length copies. Five consensuses, reflecting the probable evolutionary groups of these elements, were constructed, based on a similarity matrix. The first consensus (Maymarcons1) belonged to Himar1-like elements reported in other insects, while the remaining four (Maymarcons2 to 5) seemed to be more specific to Cecidomyiidae. Moreover, the presence of elements belonging to the Maymarcons4 group was ascertained by PCR amplification, in both Mayetiola species, and was further identified in the Transcriptome Shotgun Assembly (TSA) of the orange fly, Sitodiplosis mosellana (Cecidomyiidae), suggesting the existence of irritans elements within the Cecidomyiidae, which were derived from an ancestral species by vertical transmission during speciation. On the other hand, consensuses that are specific to M. destructor could be derived from a more recent invasion. This study suggests that both M. destructor and M. hordei genomes have been invaded by irritans elements many times with at least two different evolutionary histories.

Marshall S.A. 2012: Flies: The Natural History and Diversity of Diptera. Firefly Books, New York (U.S.A.) and Richmont Hill (Canada), hardcover, 616 pp., more than 2,000 colour photographs, pictorial key to fly families, glossary, bibliography, index. ISBN 978-1-77085-100-9. Price USD 125.00.

Specific associations between species frequently occur in ecological interactions. The aim of this study was to determine the preferences of anthomyiid flies of the genus Botanophila for particular species of fungi as sites for laying eggs and as food for both larvae and adults. The associations of their eggs, larvae and flies with the stromata of different species of Epichloë fungi infecting 7 species of grass in Poland were analyzed. Scanning electron microscopy of the surface of their eggs and an analysis of the genetic sequences of their mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase (COII) were used to identify the taxa of the flies studied. Three types of eggs were distinguished based on their shape, colour and the presence of dorsal folds and sculpturing on the shells. Tentatively, these eggs were assigned to the following species: B. laterella, B. phrenione, B. dissecta and B. lobata. COII sequences obtained from larvae that hatched from two of the types of eggs formed three distinct clades associated with the reference sequences for Botanophila phrenione, B. lobata (new to the fauna of Poland) and a putative species, "Taxon 1". Only one of these flies (B. lobata) was restricted to a single species of Epichloë (E. bromicola on Elymus repens); B. phrenione was recorded mainly from E. typhina infecting three different species of grass. The results of this study confirm that there is not a close species specific association between this fungus and this insect.

We studied the effect of flooding on a carabid community inhabiting grassland in a large river valley (W Poland). We used pitfall-traps to catch beetles from April to November 1999-2001. Some of the samples collected were preceded by floods during the collecting period, which enabled us to evaluate the effects of flooding on species composition and abundance. We collected 17,722 individuals belonging to 108 species. The number of species and individuals per sample differed between plots and showed a nonlinear decrease over time, from spring to autumn. Carabids were more abundant in samples collected after floods than in the control samples. In contrast, the expected cumulative number of species as a function of the number of individuals collected was lower in samples collected after floods than in the control samples. In the case of the most abundant species the species-specific responses in terms of the numbers caught after flooding differed, with those of (e.g. Agonum micans) increasing and those of (Amara plebeja, Epaphius secalis) decreasing. This study shows that floods filter the community with the result that some species increase in abundance but the overall species richness decreases. Therefore natural floods are important in shaping the structure of communities of epigeic carabids on floodplains.

Nutrition is one of the most important environmental factors that influence the development and growth in Drosophila. The food composition strongly affects their reproduction, welfare and survival, so it is necessary for flies to search for a mixture of macronutrients that maximizes their fitness. We have five D. melanogaster strains, which were reared for 13 years on five different substrates: standard cornmeal-agar-sugar-yeast medium and four substrates modified by adding tomato, banana, carrot and apple. This study was aimed at determining how such long-term rearing of flies on substrates with different protein content affects fitness traits (dynamics of eclosion, developmental time and egg-to-adult survival). Further, we determined how transferring flies reared on fruit/vegetable substrates to a standard laboratory diet affected their fitness. Results indicate that strains reared on the diet with the lowest content of protein and the highest C/N ratio had the slowest eclosion and developmental time, and lowest egg-to-adult survival (apple diet). The flies reared on the diet with the highest protein content and the lowest C/N ratio had the highest survival (tomato diet). Flies reared on the carrot diet, which is quite similar in protein content and C/N ratio to the standard cornmeal diet, had the fastest development. Transferring flies to the standard cornmeal diet accelerate eclosion and developmental time, but did not affect survival.

The cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae), is a serious pest of citrus in northern Iran, both because of the damaged caused by its feeding and as a vector of several viruses. The genetic structure of populations of A. gossypii on citrus trees at eight localities in Iran was surveyed using seven polymorphic microsatellite loci. Of 240 individuals tested, 142 multilocus genotypes (MLGs) were identified. The presence of multicopy genotypes and negative F_IS values revealed that the major mode of reproduction in northern Iran is obligate parthenogenesis. The genotypic diversity of populations ranged between 0.24 and 0.93. Considerable genotypic diversity and a high frequency of unique MLGs, confirmed there is some cyclical parthenogenesis in the region. The analysis of molecular variance revealed high intrapopulation and weak interpopulation genetic differentiation (overall F_ST = 0.036) among the different populations. The UPGMA dendrogram of eight populations based on Nei's genetic distance indicated two clusters: genotypes from West of Mazandaran and Guilan provinces and those from East of Mazandaran. The same results were also obtained from the STRUCTURE analysis of these populations. This information on the genetic diversity of populations of A. gossypii in northern Iran could be useful for improving the Integrated Pest Management of this aphid.

The potato tuberworm, Phthorimaea operculella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), is a major pest of potato, Solanum tuberosum L. (Solanales: Solanaceae), both in the field and storehouses. The rate of development and survival of P. operculella, reared on potato tubers cv. Spunta at eight constant temperatures (17.5, 20, 22.5, 25, 27.5, 30, 32.5 and 35°C), were studied in the laboratory. The duration of development of the immature stages was recorded. Adult longevity was also recorded under the same conditions. Developmental time decreased significantly with increase in temperature within the range 17.5-32.5°C. No development occurred at 35°C. Survival (%) from egg to adult was higher at temperatures within the range 17.5-27.5°C than at either 30 or 32.5°C. Linear and a non-linear (Logan I) models were fitted to our data in order to describe the developmental rate of the immature stages of P. operculella as a function of temperature and estimate the thermal constant (K) and critical temperatures (i.e., lower developmental threshold, optimum temperature for development, upper developmental threshold). Lower developmental threshold and optimum temperature for development ranged between 12.5-16.2 and 31.7-33.8°C, respectively. The estimated upper developmental threshold for total immature development was 35.0°C. Thermal constant for total development was 294.0 degree-days. Adult longevity was significantly shorter at high (30 and 32.5°C) than at low temperatures (17.5-27.5°C). Our results not only provide a broader insight into the thermal biology of P. operculella, but also can be used as an important tool in planning an effective pest control program both in the field and storehouses.

Serpin is a broadly distributed superfamily of proteins that have a crucial role in regulating various immune reactions. Herein we identified a serpin-10 gene from Antheraea pernyi that encodes a 1557 amino acid residue protein with a predicted molecular weight of 58.76 kDa. Recombinant Apserpin-10 protein was expressed in a prokaryotic expression system (Escherichia coli) and the purified protein was used to prepare rabbit anti-Apserpin-10 polyclonal antibodies. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blot analysis indicate that Apserpin-10 was transcribed in all the tissues examined, including haemolymph, malpighian tubules, fat body, silk gland, integument and mid gut; the greatest expression level of Apserpin-10 was recorded in the fat body and haemocytes. The comparison of different developmental stages showed that Apserpin-10 transcript level was highest in 5th instar larvae, while the lowest expression was recorded at the egg stage. We also investigated the expression patterns of Apserpin-10 in fat body and haemocyte samples, following administration of heat-inactivated gram-positive bacteria (Micrococcus luteus), gram negative bacteria (Escherichia coli), a fungus (Beauveria bassiana) and virus (nuclear polyhedrosis virus, NPV). A substantial up-regulation of Apserpin-10 expression was recorded following pathogen challenge in both the tissues tested. Further the knock down of Apserpin-10 led to down regulation of antimicrobial peptide genes. Altogether, our results indicate that Apserpin-10 is involved in the innate immunity of A. pernyi.

Knowledge of the patterns in the spatial distribution of species provides valuable information about the factors (resources and environment) that regulate the use of space by animals. Typically, the distribution of litter-dwelling scorpions in Atlantic forests is correlated with the structure of their microhabitats, although to better understand their natural history more studies on the patterns in their use of space are required. Therefore, we investigated the effect of rainfall on the patterns in the spatial distributions and population densities of two sympatric species of scorpion, Tityus (Archaeotityus) pusillus Pocock 1893 and Ananteris mauryi Lourenço 1982 in a fragment of Atlantic Forest in Brazil. The study was carried out during the dry (September) and rainy (June) months. We collected 501 individuals (268 T. (A.) pusillus and 233 A. mauryi) by actively searching at night using UV lanterns. We found that the spatial distribution and population density of T. (A.) pusillus, but not A. mauryi, were significantly affected by rainfall, with T. (A.) pusillus individuals showing a clumped pattern during the rainy month and random distribution in the dry month. We also found a different response in the population densities of the two species, with T. (A.) pusillus but not A. mauryi being affected by rainfall. Our results indicate that, although co-habiting in leaf litter, these species respond differently to rainfall, which affects their spatial distribution and abundance in this habitat.

Environmental degradation caused by climate change greatly affects the forest ecosystems of the Mediterranean region, in particular the sclerophyllous Quercus forests typical of central and southern Spain. An important pest that damages oak trees in this area is Coraebus florentinus (Herbst), a heliophilous and thermophilous insect whose survival could be favoured by the temperature increase associated with climate change. The main objective of this paper was to determine the effect of temperature on the duration and percentage survival of the preimaginal stage of C. florentinus and provide data for determining more precisely when to control for this pest by applying silvicultural techniques. The experiment included six treatments, with 25 branches infested with C. florentinus in each of the treatments, which were kept at different temperatures over the range 15-28°C. The results clearly support the hypothesis that higher temperatures affect the post-larval development of C. florentinus by increasing the percentage survival and shortening the developmental time. In fact, partial correlations confirm that the highest percentages of emergence and survival were recorded when the developmental times were shortest, which occurred at the highest temperatures used. Despite the clear influence of temperature on the development of the preimaginal stage of C. florentinus, additional trials are required to accurately determine future trends in C. florentinus populations. Accordingly, it is necessary to develop monitoring programs in zones affected by C. florentinus and to apply scheduled management techniques that ensure the control of this species.

Although various methods exist for sampling aquatic Heteroptera and Coleoptera in standing water, there are very few comparisons of their performance in different types of habitat. In this study, we evaluated and compared the efficiency and selectivity of three sampling methods: hand netting, bottle traps baited with canned tuna and bottle traps baited with canned cat food. The methods were compared over the period 2010-2012 in two different habitats (temporarily flooded areas and canals) in the Nature Park Kopački rit, a floodplain on the banks of the River Danube. The results show that the effectiveness of the method differed in the two habitats. Overall, hand netting was the most successful method, mainly in canals. Tuna fish bait was more efficient than the commonly used cat food, especially for large and highly mobile species of Dytiscidae. These findings indicate that knowing the type of habitat and the habitat preferences of aquatic insects and their activity it is possible to predict which of these methods are the best for estimating species richness.

Infrastructure is one of the main causes of landscape fragmentation, which results in isolation and loss of populations. Although the negative effect of roads on insects is well documented, only a minority of studies has focused on roads in the context of barriers to dispersal. Flying species in particular have been neglected. We investigated the effect of a four-lane motorway as a barrier to the movement of an isolated population of the threatened dragonfly Sympetrum depressiusculum in an agricultural landscape in Central Europe. Generalized additive models were used to assess the motorway's effect on (i) the distribution of adult dragonflies in patches of terrestrial habitat surrounding their natal site, and (ii) individual flight behaviour (i.e. willingness or unwillingness to cross the motorway). Movement patterns of marked adults throughout the landscape were also investigated. During one season, significantly fewer adults were found at patches located on the far side of the motorway, indicating it has a barrier effect. Observations on flight behaviour revealed no apparent effect of the motorway. The possible barrier effect for the species studied was therefore presumed to be a consequence of road mortality. Our results indicate that the motorway may influence the dispersal of this threatened species of dragonfly, which is a habitat specialist with particular requirements for its terrestrial environment. Negative effects on other species with similar behaviour and strategy can be presumed. When establishing new habitats, carrying out reintroductions or translocations, it is necessary to consider that roadways may reduce population size and affect population dynamics by limiting dispersal.

Satellite DNAs are the major repetitive DNA components in eukaryotic genomes. Although satellite DNA has long been called "parasite DNA" there is substantial evidence that it could be associated with some functions of chromosome biology. Ladybird beetles (Coccinellidae) are one of the largest and most important groups of beetles. Many ladybirds are of economic interest as biological control agents because they eat some agricultural pests such as aphids and scale insects. However, other species are phytophagous and can damage crops. Despite the ecological importance of the latter group there are no studies on their satellite DNA. A satellite DNA family was isolated and characterized in the ladybird Henosepilachna argus. This satellite DNA is organized in tandem repeats of 658 bp and is A + T rich (67.3%). The recorded high sequence conservation of the monomers together with the detection of putative gene conversion processes indicate concerted evolution. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) revealed that this satellite DNA is transcribed and in situ hybridization its location in the subtelomeric regions of all chromosomes except the long arm of the X chromosome. The presence of this satellite DNA in other species of the genus Henosepilachna and Epilachna was also tested using PCR. The results indicate that this satellite DNA sequence is so far specific to H. argus.

Pitfall traps are widely used for sampling ground-dwelling arthropods. Their sampling efficiency is affected by several factors, e.g. material, size and modification of parts of the trap and sampling design. Pitfall trap sampling is also affected by the accumulation of plant litter in the traps, rain fall and by-catches of small vertebrates, which may cause a bias in the catch by obstructing traps or attracting certain insects. A roof that prevents rain and plant litter entering a trap, prevents dilution of the preservative and escape of arthropods. The main goal of present study was to compare the effect of four types of differently combined funnel and roof pitfall traps on the capture efficiency of epigeal arthropods. We found that a funnel and/or a roof had no effect on spider catches. Total abundance of large carabids and thus the total abundance of ground beetles was lower in funnel pitfall traps without a roof than in other types of traps. However, funnel pitfall traps with roofs collected significantly more carabid beetles, especially individuals of those species that are large or good fliers. We conclude that funnel pitfall traps with roofs have no negative effects on capture efficiency of ground beetles and spiders, therefore application of this sampling technique is strongly recommended.

The horse chestnut leaf miner Cameraria ohridella Deschka & Dimic (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) was first recorded in Europe near lake Ohrid in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia in 1985 since when it has spread throughout the whole of Europe. The reasons for its spread are well documented. The aim of this study was to assess the population density of the first generation of C. ohridella at eight sites in the urban area of České Budějovice, Czech Republic in two consecutive years. The density was estimated visually in terms of the damage done to horse chestnut leaves by C. ohridella larvae at each site during the vegetative season. The results revealed high variability in the mean percentage of the leaf area damaged ranging from 1.43% to 31.00% and from 0.26% to 23.40% in 2012 and 2013, respectively. The effect of site, year and interaction between these two factors were statistically highly significant. Spatial analysis revealed no autocorrelation in damage among sites indicating that the distribution of C. ohridella is random and not affected by the level of infestation at neighbouring sites. In autumn, samples of leaves were collected and the mortality of diapausing pupae of C. ohridella determined. It ranged from 12.50% to 25.82% and from 10.31% to 22.35% in 2012 and 2013, respectively. There was no significant effect of site and year and their interaction on pupal mortality. The leaf samples were then weighed and put into photo-eclectors, which were placed outdoors. Numbers of adults of C. ohridella and hymenopteran parasitoids that emerged in spring were recorded daily. There were statistically significant associations of the total number of adults that emerged from samples in spring with both site and year as well as their interaction. The number of moths that emerged was positively correlated with the damage done by the first generation of C. ohridella the previous year. Similarly, the total number of parasitoids that emerged was correlated with the number of moths that emerged. The implications of these findings for the optimization of C. ohridella control are discussed.

Insects produce pigment and structural colours mainly for camouflage, signaling, physical protection or temperature regulation, and colour patterns can provide information about individual quality. Although the evolutionary function and nature of the variability in colouration are well known for many invertebrate taxa, there is little information on this topic for ants. We studied individual variation in the melanin-based colour traits of workers of the red wood ant, Formica rufa (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), from 20 colonies in Southern Finland and revealed the type of colouration in this species. First, using the threshold approach we distinguished between continuous and discrete variations. Furthermore, the analyses affirmed nine discrete morphs in terms of the colouration on the head and eight on the pronotum, while only continuous variation were found on the other body parts. Measuring the size of a particular colour pattern, the intensity of colour expression (degree of melanization) and statistical analyses allowed an assessment of the intra-individual variation in both discrete and continuous patterns. The results revealed substantial modularity in the above mentioned colouration traits. In workers of F. rufa there were individuals with a dark head and light coloured thorax and vice a versa. Size of the dark pigment colour patterns exhibited less modularity than the degree of melanization. Finally, the interrelation between colouration traits and individual body size revealed their size-dependent origin. Small individuals had relatively larger areas of colour on the head and thorax than big individuals. These results are likely to facilitate further taxonomical and ecological studies on red wood ants, as they show it is possible to assess colouration traits in ants. However, more studies are needed on the function of polymorphism and modular colouration in this group of ants.

Members of the clade Trichophora (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Pentatomomorpha) have trichobothria on their abdominal sterna. There is no comparative study of the fine structure of abdominal trichobothria in the group and until now the trichobothria of their immatures were virtually unknown. The fine structure of the abdominal trichobothrial complex (= the trichobothrium and its associated structures) of adults of 98 species belonging to 25 families in 5 superfamilies and larvae of 7 species belonging to 7 families in 2 superfamilies of Trichophora were examined using scanning electron microscopy. This study indicates that the fine structure of the abdominal trichobothria is very variable and useful for determining evolutionary lineages within the clade. Six types of bothria, three of trichomes and three of microtrichia are recognized and their evolutionary transformations discussed. Changes in the size of trichomes, and density and size of the microtrichia during the postembryonic development of selected species are discussed.

The outcome of assessments of the biodiversity of a taxonomic group often depend on the sampling method. The choice of an adequate method is especially important for biomonitoring purposes. In this study, the effectiveness of two methods of sampling syrphids (Diptera: Syrphidae) is compared: observation plot method vs. line transect, both sampled by sweep netting. Altogether, 18 meadows were selected in three mountain regions in the Austrian and Swiss Alps. We recorded a significantly higher abundance and richness of syrphids using the observation plot method than the line transect method in 2015. Comparing data for one region recorded in 2015 and 2016, similar results were obtained. Syrphid species assemblages were affected by sampling method in both years. More syrphid species and individuals were recorded using the observation plot method, which makes it more suitable for studies aiming at comparing differences in the numbers of adult syrphids in different grassland habitats.

According to previous observations, it was hypothesized that the feeding behavior of some ant species would be deterred by a scavenger deterrent factor (SDF), whereas for other species it would not. The effects of the SDF were studied on 11 ant species in three different subfamilies: Dolichoderinae Forel, 1878, Formicinae Latreille, 1809, and Myrmicinae Lepeletier de Saint-Fargeau, 1835. The experiments were conducted from 2014-2015 in Davis, California, United States, Aydin, Turkey, and Duzce, Turkey. Five-day-old Heterorhabditis bacteriophora (Poinar, 1976), (Hb)-killed and freeze-killed Galleria mellonella (Linnaeus, 1758) were exposed to ant colonies in the field for 3 to 4 h. Seven ant species fed significantly less on Hb-killed insects than freeze-killed insect. On the other hand, there was no significant difference in cadaver consumption with five species, but Liometopum occidentale Emery, 1895 did consume a higher rate of Hb-killed insects than freeze-killed insects and was not deterred by SDF. It was also observed that four ant species took Hb-killed insects into the nests, but two Myrmicinae species, Pogonomyrmex subdentatus Mayr, 1870 and Messor meridionalis (André, 1883) removed the cadavers after 30 min, whereas two Formicinae species, Cataglyphis nodus (Brullé, 1833) and Formica fusca Linnaeus, 1758, retained the cadavers in the nest. It was assumed that the latter two species consumed both Hb-killed and freeze-killed insects. Further studies are needed to explain why L. occidentale C. nodus and F. fusca are not deterred by SDF.

The effectiveness of natural enemies in controlling pests may be determined by many traits linked to their ability to regulate the density of their prey. In this respect, the phenomenon of pseudoparasitism, in which female parasitoids reject a host after inserting their ovipositor into it, is fairly common among hymenopteran parasitoids. However, in spite of this its effect on hosts is rarely reported in entomological and biological control literature. For this reason, in the present study, the pseudoparasitism by the parasitoid Spalangia cameroni Perkins of the Mediterranean pest Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) and its effect on several biological parameters of the host were studied under laboratory conditions. The results indicate that the percentage pseudoparasitism by S. cameroni of medfly in the laboratory is high, even slightly higher than host-feeding, which is commonly used to evaluate the potential of parasitoids as biological control agents. In addition, the adults that emerge from pseudoparasitized medfly pupae have a male-biased sex ratio, low levels of survival and are frequently damaged, which results in small adults and an inability to mate successfully. In conclusion, our results indicate that pseudoparasitism is common and enhances the effectiveness of S. cameroni attacking medfly, which highlights the importance of this phenomenon when selecting parasitoids to be included in a biological control programme.

The Mediterranean corn borer Sesamia nonagrioides (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) has a unique and recently multiplied juvenile hormone esterase gene family (SnJHER) with particular transcriptional profiles and functional characteristics. Unlike conventional juvenile hormone esterase genes (JHEs), the SnJHER gene family seems to have been recently evolved from a common ancestral JHER gene. SnJHERs seem to be regulated by both ecdysone agonists and xenobiotics, while their real role in development remains to be exploited. In this study we transiently expressed the major SnJHER isoform in Bm5 and Hi5 cell lines. The JHER-expressing cell lines showed increased toxicity when treated with the juvenile hormone analog methoprene. Moreover baculovirus-mediated transient gene transduction of the SnJHER gene in larvae of S. nonagrioides resulted in moulting abnormalities. These were more marked after the additional application of the juvenile hormone analog methoprene. Our results indicate a potential mechanism by which SnJHER interferes with normal JHE.

Diapause is a common dormancy strategy exhibited by many species of invertebrates and insects to temporarily avoid seasonally recurring unfavourable conditions for their development, most usually in winter. Less frequently, a prolonged diapause lasting two or more years is described in species living in unpredictable environments where it is adaptive, but with significant costs. In this paper we examine the occurrence of prolonged diapause in the lycaenid butterfly Tomares ballus. Pupae of this species undergo an obligate diapause from mid-May to late January the following year. However, during our rearing experiments (from 2009 to 2016) the emergence of adults occurred sequentially and a fraction of the pupae remained in diapause for up to seven years. The annual percentage emergence after the first year of diapause was 45.6%, and only barely exceeded 50.0% in 2015. Remarkably, 12 pupae (11.4% of the initial brood) remained in diapause in their eighth year. The negative exponential equation fitted to the emergence data suggests that further emergences may occur within the next five years. Therefore, the potential for successful prolonged diapause of T. ballus pupae may be more than 10 years. The adaptive value of this strategy is discussed in relation to the effects of adverse and unpredictable weather during the flight period of the butterfly, intra-guild competition, parasitoids and changes in habitat quality. We suggest that this strategy may also be exhibited by other species of Mediterranean lycaenids.