Ageing and its affect on life attributes have not been widely explored in ladybirds. The present study investigates the influence of female and male age at mating on the reproductive attributes of the ladybird beetle, Coelophora saucia (Mulsant). All reproductive attributes, viz. fecundity, percentage egg hatch, pre-oviposition, oviposition and post-oviposition periods were found to be influenced by the ages of both females and males at mating. This is unlike the results of previous studies on ladybirds, where male age was found to influence only percentage egg hatch. The influence of male age at mating on fecundity and reproductive periods is probably due to age influenced variation in seminal proteins, which influence fecundity and when the eggs are laid.

Semi-natural habitats are key components of rural landscapes because they shelter a significant number of overwintering arthropods that are beneficial to agriculture. However, woodlots are semi-natural habitats with high patch-level heterogeneity and this aspect has been poorly studied. The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of woodlot heterogeneity on overwintering ground beetles. Woodlot heterogeneity was characterized in terms of distance from the woodlot boundary and date of the most recent logging operation. We used emergence traps to quantify the population density of ground beetles that overwintered in the different parts of the woodlot. In woodlot edges the densities and species richness of ground beetles were significantly higher than in the rest of the woodlot. Ground beetles that are active in crop fields overwintered in the edges but not in the inner zone of the woodlot. Species assemblages of ground beetles overwintering in the edges were highly diverse. The date of the most recent logging operation did not explain the distribution of ground beetles that overwintered in the woodlot. Our results show that woodlots, and in particular their edges, are used as a winter shelter by ground beetles that spend part of their life in crops, which potentially favours biological control in adjacent crop fields.

Warmer temperatures in the past 30 years have significantly influenced the seasonal development of insects throughout Europe. As a result of the outbreaks of black flies that have occurred in southeastern Lithuania since the 1970s it is hypothesized that this increase in black fly activity is due to the change in climate. To test this hypothesis the development of Simulium maculatum Meigen under different conditions was determined. This revealed that the time of hatching of S. maculatum eggs in Lithuania was influenced by winter air temperatures, especially those in March. Pupation in S. maculatum is associated with the increase in air and water temperatures that occur at the end of April and in May. The emergence of S. maculatum black flies occurs most often in May. At a water temperature of 13.2°C (1999), S. maculatum took 42 days to develop and half this time (21 days) when the water temperature was 18.8°C (2005). The number of black flies that emerged each year was determined by air temperature but unaffected by rainfall in June (either per month or per ten-day period).

Brill, Leiden-Boston, 2009, 299 pp., 46 colour plates. ISBN 978-90-04-16947-0. Price EUR 169.00/USD 250.00.

The aim of the present work was to identify cryptic species in the Anopheles maculipennis and Culex pipiens complexes and to study the genetic structure of the dominant mosquito species Ochlerotatus caspius (Diptera: Culicidae) in the Province of Alessandria close to the vast area untreated rice fields in Piedmont, NW Italy. With the help of PCR-RFLP analysis, four members of the Anopheles maculipennis complex were identified: A. messeae, A. maculipennis, A. sacharovi and A. atroparvus. Only C. pipiens f. molestus was identified in 11 habitats studied in Piedmont. Partial sequences of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI) mitochondrial gene and the second internal transcribed spacer (ITS2) of nuclear ribosomal RNA genes for Italian O. caspius are reported here for the first time. The results indicate that this species diverged from Iranian representatives of this species about one million years ago. The great diversity of mosquito species in Piedmont considerably increases the risk of vector-borne diseases.

Wood ant colonies that appear to consist of individuals representing different species are described in several previous papers. The present study is the first to elucidate the genetic basis of the spectacular morphological variability observed within such colonies. Two seemingly mixed colonies (FM-1 and FM-2) from southern Finland were investigated. On the basis of the morphology of their workers these colonies were comprised of individuals with phenotypes typical of Formica rufa L., F. polyctena Först., and F. aquilonia Yarr. The sequence of an mtDNA fragment (5' end of the cytochrome b gene) was used to examine the phylogenetic relationships among haplotypes of workers from homogeneous colonies of different wood ant species and the two supposedly mixed colonies, and to sort the individuals within the colonies into matrilines. Six microsatellite loci were used to analyse the genetic differentiation between colonies and among workers within colonies, and to detect putative hybrids. The results show that, independently of their phenotype, workers from the "mixed" colonies were genetically more similar to other individuals in their colony than to those in the homogeneous F. rufa, F. polyctena or F. aquilonia colonies. However, while colony FM-1 consisted of offspring of the same queen or more likely several maternally related queens, colony FM-2 consisted of the offspring of at least four unrelated queens. The data suggest hybridisation between F. polyctena × F. aquilonia and F. polyctena × F. rufa (and possibly subsequent mating between these hybrids) as the most probable mechanism leading to the existence of these two colonies, which implies that the hybrids are fertile. This study shows that colonies of wood ant hybrids can arise spontaneously and persist under natural conditions. The results also revealed that even some morphologically homogeneous colonies are genetically heterogeneous. In the case of closely related, morphologically similar species that interbreed, morphology can be a bad predictor of genetic differences between individuals.

Trehalose is not only an important disaccharide, but also a key stress resistance factor in the development of many organisms, including plants, bacteria, fungi, and insects. To study the potential function of trehalose in development and behaviour, cDNA for a trehalose-6-phosphate synthase from Catantops pinguis (CpiTPS) was cloned and sequenced. Results revealed that the CpiTPS cDNA sequence contains an open reading frame of 2430 nucleotides encoding a protein of 809 amino acids with a predicted molecular weight of 91.13 kDa and a pI value of 6.25. Northern blot and RT-PCR analyses showed that CpiTPS mRNA expression was high in the fat body and testes, ovaries, Malpighian tubules, brain, trachea, rectum, and posterior extensor of C. pinguis. Northern blotting revealed that CpiTPS mRNA was expressed in the fat body at different developmental stages and was present at a high level in first instar larvae and adults. The results demonstrate that CpiTPS is a key gene in C. pinguis development.

The aim of this study was to investigate whether haemocytes of Galleria mellonella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) larvae produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) like human blood phagocytes. The production of ROS was measured first using luminol-enhanced chemiluminescence of un-stimulated and stimulated (four activators with different modes of action) haemolymph or isolated haemocytes. However, spontaneous and activated production of ROS remained at the background level. In subsequent experiments an ultrasensitive fluorescence method using Amplex Red reagent to detect hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) was used. After optimization, Amplex Red was successfully used for determining H₂O₂ production by both un-stimulated and stimulated haemocytes. To determine the affect of pH and ions on the measurement, several diluent solutions were tested. This revealed that Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ ions are less important for the reaction in insect than mammalian cells. Among the activators tested, phorbol myristate acetate (PMA) and calcium ionophore (Ca-I) had the best stimulatory effect on insect samples, while opsonised zymosan particles (OZP) was the best activator for human phagocytes. In conclusion, the haemocytes of G. mellonella produce H₂O₂ as an important innate immunity factor, but under different conditions and in different amounts, which probably results in them being less effective in killing microbes than human phagocytes.

The Tachyusa coarctata species group is revised. The species group is defined on the basis of the distinctly asperate punctation on elytra, the dense punctation on tergites III-V with interstices between punctures 1.5-2.0 times their diameter, and the dense, subrecumbent pubescence on the abdomen. The T. coarctata species group is composed of twenty three species restricted in occurrence to the Holarctic and Africa, including one new species described from Iran: Tachyusa frischi sp.n. A revised key to the species in this group is provided. An analysis of the phylogeny of the Tachyusa coarctata species group based on cladistic methods is presented and the phylogenetic relationships among species are discussed.

In summer 2008, the Orthopteran species Chorthippus biguttulus, Myrmeleotettix maculatus (Caelifera), Decticus verrucivorus and Platycleis albopunctata (Ensifera) were sampled in coastal heathland on the German Baltic Sea island of Hiddensee. The aim of this study was to assess differences in abundance of Orthoptera in three different habitats and determine the importance of habitat mosaics. Distribution patterns varied among species and total abundance of Orthoptera differed significantly among the three habitats. Due to species-specific habitat preferences the Caelifera were most abundant in grey dunes and the Ensifera in dwarf-shrub heath adjoining grey dunes. In conclusion, grey dunes are a suitable habitat for the Caelifera studied, while the Ensifera require a heathland mosaic consisting of both grey dunes and dwarf shrub vegetation.

Recent efforts to catalogue global biodiversity using genetic techniques have uncovered a number of "cryptic" species within morphologically similar populations that had previously been identified as single species. Chlosyne lacinia (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae), with a range extending from the Southwest U.S. to South America, is one of the most phenotypically variable and broadly distributed butterfly species in the New World. We sampled populations of C. lacinia in two temperate locations (California and Arizona) and one tropical location (El Salvador) to determine if cryptic species were present at this scale (temperate vs. tropical). We examined mtDNA sequence variation in COI, COII, the intervening tRNA (Leucine-2), 16S, 12S and an additional intervening tRNA (Valine), accounting for approximately 20% of the mitochondrial genome (3479 bp). Among all C. lacinia individuals, sequence divergence did not exceed 0.0084 compared to a 0.06 estimated divergence between C. lacinia and congener C. leanira. We also found subclade structure which did not clearly correspond to geography or subspecific designation. Though the mitochondrial phylogeny suggests a complex evolutionary history and biogeography, we demonstrate that one C. lacinia species is distributed throughout North and Central America spanning a diverse set of temperate and tropical habitats.

Adjacivena rasnitsyni gen. n., sp. n., from the Middle Jurassic Jiulongshan Formation (Daohugou Village, Inner Mongolia, China), is described based on a set of well-preserved specimens, interpreted as two females and a male of the same species. The new taxon is assigned to the family Susumaniidae, i.e. is a candidate stem-Phasmatodea. This ordinal assignment is supported by genital elements, chiefly a putative operculum concealing the ovipositor observed in one female specimen and a putative extension of the 10^th tergum with a thorn pad in the male specimen. Variation in the venation of the forewing is appreciated based on more or less complete pairs of wings and a comparison with that in the forewings of male Heteropteryx dilatata (Parkinson, 1798). This material offers new perspectives on the primary homologies of the hind wing venation of stick-insects.

The conifer needle scale, Nuculaspis abietis (Schrank) emerged as an important pest of conifers in the Kelardasht region of Mazandaran province, Iran, in the late 1990's. This pest feeds on conifer needles and twigs causing needle drop and branch desiccation. Its discovery in Kelardasht in Mazandaran Province necessitated a local quarantine of conifers in the genera Picea, Abies, and Pinus. We studied the life history and ecology of this scale on Norway spruce, Picea abies, under laboratory and natural field conditions. The complete life cycle of females required 206.4 ± 5.7 days in the laboratory (25 ± 1°C, 65-75% RH, 14L : 10D) and 315.7 ± 9.3 days under field conditions. In Kelardasht, numbers of adult males and females peaked in mid-June and early May, respectively, and numbers of first and second instar nymphs in mid-July and early September. Lifetime fecundity was estimated to be 57.3 ± 5.1 eggs and 54.0 ± 4.4 nymphs per female under laboratory conditions. The sex ratio ranged from 59% female for second instar nymphs to 71% female for adults. Aspidiotiphagus citrinus (Crawford) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) was found naturally parasitizing the scale and overwintering in the larval stage on second instar nymphs. First generation adult wasps emerged in spring from overwintered second instar nymphs to parasitize 64.75% of first instar scales. Second generation wasps emerged from early September to mid-October and parasitized 19.75% of second instar scales, for a cumulative parasitism rate of 84.5%.

There are isolated populations of the endangered butterfly, Pyrgus sidae, on the Iberian Peninsula. The mark-release-recapture method was used to study the population parameters, the use of resources and the spatial distribution of a population in the centre of Spain. The estimated number of males and females within the population were similar and did not differ significantly from a ratio of 1 : 1. Total population size was estimated to be 569 ± 83 individuals. Potentilla recta is the principal adult nectar source and larval food plant, and its abundance is correlated with the number of marked and recaptured butterflies. The average total distance moved between capture and recapture was significantly greater for males than females, but the average daily distances moved were similar for both sexes. The spatial distribution of the movements of males and females was of a uniform type and lacked a predominant flight direction, which is typical of sedentary species. Continuing the traditional land use (cattle grazing or hay mowing) of the habitat of the species keeps the habitat open, which is necessary if the butterfly is to survive at this locality. These management practices favour P. recta, which would otherwise succumb to competition from invasive shrubs. Taking into account the habitat requirements of this species, it is important to conserve the mosaic of meadows already present in the area.

The second and final part of a revision of the European species of the genus Rhabdomastix Skuse, 1890 is presented. The subgenus Rhabdomastix s. str. is revised. Seven species are redescribed, Rhabdomastix (Rhabdomastix) japonica Alexander, 1924, R. (R.) laeta (Loew, 1873), R. (R.) borealis Alexander, 1924, R. (R.) edwardsi Tjeder, 1967, R. (R.) subparva Starý, 1971, R. (R.) hirticornis (Lackschewitz, 1940) and R. (R.) beckeri (Lackschewitz, 1935). Three new synonyms are proposed. Lectotypes of four pertinent nominal species are designated. Descriptions are provided of six species, viz. R. (R.) laetoidea sp. n. (Czech Republic, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Ukraine), R. (R.) crassa sp. n. (France, Czech Republic, Slovakia), R. (R.) corax sp. n. (Bulgaria, Greece), R. (R.) eugeni sp. n. (France, Switzerland, Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Ukraine, Armenia), R. (R.) filata sp. n. (Bulgaria, Greece, European Russia, Turkey, Georgia, Armenia) and R. (R.) georgica sp. n. (Georgia). Male and female terminalia are illustrated for all the species, and a key to species is appended.

Geographic isolation, altitude, climate, landscape and habitat are significant predictors of butterfly diversity in mountain ecosystems. Their diversity and its dependence on altitude, aspect (compass bearing) and biogeographic characteristics of the butterflies were surveyed on the karst mountain Biokovo in southern Croatia. The results affirm that there is a high diversity of butterflies in the study area and the species composition and biogeographic elements are more dependent on altitude than aspect of the mountain. The present study indicates that climate, relief and habitat preferences strongly influence the biogeographic features of species and the relationship between species richness per site and altitude, aspect and the altitude-aspect interaction.

The pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae Burckhardt & Lauterer (Hemiptera: Psyllidae), is a major pest of pistachio trees throughout the pistachio producing regions in Iran. The effect of temperature on the developmental rates of eggs and nymphs of A. pistaciae was determined at different constant temperatures, i.e. 15, 20, 25, 30, 32.5 and 35 ± 0.5°C. The relationships between temperature and developmental rates were described by linear and the non-linear Lactin models. These models were evaluated based on R², RSS, AIC and R²_adj. The estimated value of the lower temperature threshold for egg, nymph and egg to adult development based on the linear model was 8.06, 10.38 and 9.97°C, respectively, and based on the Lactin model was 8, 11.55 and 11.2°C, respectively. Thermal constants estimated using the linear model, were 88.5, 243.90 and 333.33 DD, respectively, for egg, nymph and egg to adult development. These results indicate that the linear model gives a better description of the relationship between developmental rate and temperature for A. pistaciae than the non-linear model. These results could be incorporated into forecasting models used in the integrated pest management of this pest.

Chromosomes of the males of five species of Odontura, belonging to the subgenera Odontura and Odonturella, were analyzed. Intensive evolution of the karyotype was recorded, both in terms of changes in the numbers of chromosomes (from 2n = 31 to 27) and the sex chromosome system (from X0 to neo-XY and X0 to neo-X₁X₂Y). Karyotype evolution was accompanied by tandem autosome fusions and interspecific autosomal and sex chromosome differentiation involving changes in the locations of nucleolar organizer regions, NORs, which were revealed by silver impregnation and confirmed by FISH using an 18S rDNA probe. O. (Odonturella) aspericauda is a polytypic species with X0 and neo-X₁X₂Y sex determination. The latter system is not common in tettigoniids. It possibly originated by a translocation of a distal segment of the original X chromosome onto a medium sized autosome, resulting in a shortened neo-X₁ and a metacentric neo-Y. The remaining autosome homologue became the neo-X₂ chromosome. This shift from X0 to neo-X₁X₂Y is supported by the length of the X chromosome and location of the NOR/rDNA.

Larvae of the butterfly, Battus polydamas archidamas (Papilionidae: Troidini) feed exclusively on aristolochic acid (AAs)-containing Aristolochia species (Aristolochiaceae). The distribution of sequestrated AAs in the tissues (body, integument and osmeterial secretions) of B. polydamas archidamas larvae during their development, when fed on a meridic diet containing either a higher or lower concentration of AAs (AAI and AAII) than occurs naturally in the aerial tissues of their host plant, was determined. Accumulation of AAs in the body and integument was proportional to the weight of larvae and greater in the larvae that fed on the diet containing the higher concentration of AAs. Phenolic AAs (AAIa and AAIVa) not present in the diets were found in all larval tissues examined. Integument and body extracts had a higher AAI/AAII ratio than in the original diet and also a relatively high AAIa/AAIVa ratio, suggesting a preferred AAII to AAIa transformation in those larval tissues. In the osmeterial secretion, the value of the AAI/AAII ratio was similar to that in the diets and the AAIa/AAIVa ratio close to 1, which suggests that hydroxylation of AAI to AAIVa and of AAII to AAIa occur to similar extents. The higher accumulation of AAs and the relatively higher proportion of AAI, one of the most toxic AAs, in the integument, suggest that their role is to deter attacks by natural enemies.

During the last few decades the tree line has shifted upward on Mediterranean mountains. This has resulted in a decrease in the area of the sub-alpine prairie habitat and an increase in the threat to strictly orophilous moths that occur there. This also occurred on the Pollino Massif due to the increase in temperature and decrease in rainfall in Southern Italy. We found that a number of moths present in the alpine prairie at 2000 m appear to be absent from similar habitats at 1500-1700 m. Some of these species are thought to be at the lower latitude margin of their range. Among them, Pareulype berberata and Entephria flavicinctata are estimated to be the most threatened because their populations are isolated and seem to be small in size. The tops of these mountains are inhabited by specialized moth communities, which are strikingly different from those at lower altitudes on the same massif further south. The majority of the species recorded in the sub-alpine prairies studied occur most frequently and abundantly in the core area of the Pollino Massif. Species and, as a consequence, communities found at high altitudes are highly vulnerable to climate warming, and need further monitoring.

In this second part of the revision of Afrotropical Afrocrania Hincks, 1949 (= Pseudocrania Weise, 1892, not Pseudocrania MCoy, 1851), a group of Galerucinae restricted to Africa, additional material is revised. Herein, species in which the males lack deep head cavities, partly horned antennomeres, or extended elytral extrusions, but usually have small post-scutellar extrusions or depressions, are considered. Material of Afrocrania pauli (Weise, 1903), comb. n. (= Candezea pauli Weise, 1903), and A. famularis (Weise, 1904), comb. n. (= Monolepta famularis Weise, 1904; = Candezea atripennis Laboissière, 1931, syn. n.) is studied. Lectotypes are designated for A. pauli, A. famularis and C. atripennis. Six new species, A. aequatoriana sp. n., A. minima sp. n., A. nigra sp. n., A. occidentalis sp. n., A. pallida sp. n. and A. weisei sp. n. are described. Distribution patterns are mapped. Together with the already revised species there are 16 valid Afrocrania species are hitherto known. Its phylogenetic position within the Galerucinae is discussed, identification keys to males and females for all known taxa are presented.

Life table data of natural enemies are often used to understand their population dynamics and estimate their potential role in the biological control of pests. Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) is an important pest of several crops and its intrinsic rate of population increase (r_m) is 0.282 at 22°C. The life table parameters (immature mortality, developmental time, sex ratio of emerging adults, fecundity and longevity) of Praon volucre (Haliday) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Aphidiinae) parasitizing M. euphorbiae were estimated in a climatic chamber at 22 ± 1°C, RH 70 ± 10% and 12 h photophase. Immature mortality was 8.2%, developmental time of males and females was 13.9 and 14.4 days, respectively, and the sex ratio was 0.55 (= fraction of females). Parasitoid fecundity was 504 eggs and longevity 11 days. The net rate of reproduction (R₀) was 207.5 females and the intrinsic rate of population increase (r_m) 0.281 females/female/day. The time for doubling the population (TD) was 2.45 weeks. P. volucre has a population growth rate similar to that of its host M. euphorbiae and might therefore be a good candidate for the biological control of this aphid.

Adults of the invasive harlequin ladybird, Harmonia axyridis (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), were found to be parasitized by nematodes (Tylenchomorpha: Allantonematidae) in Denmark. The nematodes were identified as Parasitylenchus sp. Major morphological characters of the nematodes did not differ significantly from Parasitylenchus coccinellinae Iperti & van Waerebeke 1968, but minor deviations in egg dimension and tail length were measured. Parasitism was only recorded in early autumn, with prevalence ranging from 2 to 33%. Adult and juvenile nematodes occurred together in the body cavity of both female and male H. axyridis.

Leucorrhinia caudalis is a dragonfly species threatened throughout Europe. Despite evidence of the recent extension of its distribution range, it is unknown whether L. caudalis regularly or hardly ever migrates among ponds. The contemporary migration patterns of the species were investigated using Bayesian assignment tests and the migration rates related to landscape structural and thematic variables (distance between ponds, forest area, area of water body, area of hedgerow). Migration rates of L. caudalis are independent of any landscape element. Thus, landscape structure is not a barrier or corridor for migration in this species. The tendency of L. caudalis to disperse is largely independent of the nature of the landscape, at least at the scale of the present study.

The size and fecundity of Hemiberlesia lataniae (Signoret) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) on partially resistant and susceptible kiwifruit (Actinidia spp.) varieties was measured. The size ratio of mature H. lataniae grown on a partially resistant genotype, compared with those on a susceptible genotype, was 0.67-0.51 for 2^nd instar exuviae area, 0.32 for adult body area and 0.18 for estimated body volume. The fertility ratio was 0.1, but the pre-oviposition period and the size of the crawlers were the same. Diaspidid scale insects' unusual ability to continue growing after the final moult appears to be a key feature allowing these insects to show extreme size plasticity while retaining the ability to reproduce even when very small. These observations challenge current theories of insect development that postulate the need to achieve a critical weight threshold before the final moult. We suggest that this strategy may have assisted the evolution of polyphagy within the Diaspididae.

Phonochorion Uvarov (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae: Phaneropterinae) is a little known genus consisting of three species: Ph. satunini, Ph. artvinensis and Ph. uvarovi. The objective of this study is to conduct a thorough distributional, taxonomic and systematic revision of the genus Phonochorion using both bioacustic and external morphological characters. Field surveys indicate that the genus is distributed from the Trabzon region of Turkey to the Khulo province of Georgia however the exact limit of the eastern distribution of the genus remains unknown. Phonochorion species occur only on the northern slopes of the East Black Sea and Lesser Caucasus Mountains. The Coruh Valley, which seprates the East Black Sea and Lesser Caucasus Mountain ranges, seems to be an effective physical and climatic barrier and determines the distribution of these species. Ph. uvarovi can clearly be distinguished from Ph. satunini and Ph. artvinensis by the calling songs of males and external morphological characters. Ph. artvinensis and Ph. satunini differ in several taxonomic characters but the males have virtually identical calling songs. From a character evolution perspective, although geographically more distant, Ph. satunini is more closely related to Ph. uvarovi than Ph. artvinensis. Morphological similarities in several characters indicate Phonochorion to be most closely related to Polysarcus zacharovi and the Poecilimon heroicus-group. Within the genus Phonochorion, song structure and morphological characters clearly indicate Ph. uvarovi to be the basal taxon.

The Neochauliodes sundaicus species-group is newly proposed, containing six species and endemic to Indo-Malaysia. All six species are described and illustrated, including two new species: Neochauliodes parvus Liu, Hayashi & Flint, sp. n. and N. peninsularis Liu, Hayashi & Flint, sp. n. Full species status is given to N. maculatus Stitz, 1914, stat. n. and N. borneensis van der Weele, 1909, stat. n. A cladistic analysis is conducted to reconstruct the species level phylogeny of the N. sundaicus group based on the morphological data. Combining the present morphological phylogeny and historical geography of Indo-Malaysia, the origin and speciation of this species-group is briefly discussed.

Pitfall trapping is one of the most commonly used methods of sampling ground-dwelling arthropods. There are many studies on the effect of design of pitfall traps on their capture efficiency but, so far, none on the influence of the colour of the pitfall trap. In this study the abundances of seven invertebrate groups (Apidae, Araneae, Carabidae, Diptera, Formicidae, Isopoda, Vespinae) caught in pitfall traps of different colours (white, yellow, green, brown) at a dense and dry grassland site in Northwestern Germany were determined. White and yellow pitfall traps caught by far the highest numbers of individuals of Apidae, Araneae, Carabidae, Diptera and Formicidae. Isopoda were most abundant in the catches of green and brown traps. Differences among numbers caught were significant for Apidae, Araneae, Carabidae and Diptera. The effect of colour on the catches did not differ significantly between sites. Knowledge of the variation in the catching efficiency of differently coloured pitfall traps is important for designing invertebrate surveys, both from a scientific and ethical point of view.

The Pselaphinae is a large subfamily of staphylinid beetles with a characteristic habitus and small body size. Detailed morphological and behavioural studies on these beetles are scarce. In this study, specimens of Bryaxis puncticollis (Denny, 1825), Bryaxis bulbifer (Reichenbach, 1816), Bythinus burrelli (Denny, 1825), Brachygluta fossulata (Reichenbach, 1816), Rybaxis longicornis (Leach, 1817), Pselaphus heisei (Herbst, 1792) and Tyrus mucronatus (Panzer, 1803), all collected in Northern Germany, have been examined with regard to their sensory organs (eyes and antennae), mouthparts and method of capturing prey. Scanning electron microscope studies revealed sex-specific differences in the numbers of ommatidia in Bryaxis puncticollis. A multitude of different sensilla on the antennae and great differences in the shape of the mouthparts were observed and peculiarities of the antennae and maxillary palps (e.g., the segment-like appendage) were examined using scanning and transmission electron microscopy. The prey-capture behaviour of these species is described in detail for the first time based on laboratory experiments using Heteromurus nitidus (Templeton, 1835) (Collembola) as prey. This behaviour seems to be tribe specific, ranging from simple seizure with the mandibles (e.g., Rybaxis longicornis, tribe Brachyglutini) to the employment of raptorial legs (Tyrus mucronatus, tribe Tyrini). The two Bryaxis species (tribe Bythinini) even employ their apparently sticky maxillary palps to capture prey. The assumption that a viscous secretion is used by these species is supported by the finding of glandular structures in the interior of their maxillary palps. Prey-capture is preceded by a complicated preparation phase in most of the species and followed by a sequence of prey-handling movements that seem to be adapted to restrain prey such as Collembola. In simple prey-choice experiments the beetles of several species preferred small prey, irrespective of their own body size. In these experiments, Bryaxis bulbifer and Brachygluta fossulata were more successful in capturing prey than Bryaxis puncticollis and Pselaphus heisei. This might be related to their different sensory equipment and different methods of capturing prey.

Climatic conditions can modify the life history traits, population dynamics and biotic interactions of species. Therefore, adaptations to environmental factors such as temperature are crucial for species survival at different altitudes. These adaptive responses, genetically fixed or plastic (phenotypic plasticity), can be determined by physiological thresholds and might vary between sexes. The objective of this study was to determine whether the life history traits of the European Map butterfly (Araschnia levana) differ at different altitudes. A field experiment was carried out along an altitudinal gradient from 350 to 1010 m a.s.l. in a low mountainous region (Bavaria, Germany). 540 butterfly larvae were placed at different altitudes in 18 planted plots of their larval host plant, the stinging nettle (Urtica dioica). After three weeks the larvae were collected and reared under laboratory conditions. Developmental traits of the butterflies, mortality and percentage parasitism were measured. Larval development was generally slower at higher altitudes and lower temperatures and larval weight decreased with increasing altitude and decreasing temperature. However, there were no significant differences in pupation, adult lifespan and percentage mortality at the different altitudes and temperatures. Female larvae were heavier than those of males, and the pupal and adult lifespans were longer in females than in males. However, male and female butterflies reacted similarly to altitude and temperature (no significant interactions). None of the 188 larvae collected were parasitized. In conclusion, the phenotypic plasticity of European Map butterfly has enabled it to adapt to different temperatures, but the strategies of the sexes did not differ.