Amylase is one of three main enzymes involved in the breakdown and utilization of macromolecules. In honey bees (Apis mellifera), amylase was traditionally believed to originate only as secretion of the bee. However, other sources of amylase production, such as microbes in the guts of bees remained to be studied. In our research, we compared the differences in the amylase values in rape flower nectar and honey in the stomachs of bees. Then, culture-dependent and culture-independent (16sDNA) methods were used to isolate and identify bacteria in rape flower nectar and bee stomach honey. The dominant bacteria were added to nectar, and the amylase values of nectar with added gut microbes and nectar without added microbes were compared. Our findings indicate that the amylase value was significantly increased, which correlates with the increase in number of bacteria that occurred from nectar to honey in the stomachs of bees. The dominant bacteria in honey bee stomachs were mainly Bacillus during the flowering season of rape. Experiments confirmed that the amylase levels in nectar increased significantly when bacteria were added. These results indicate that bacteria in the foregut of bees help in the processing floral nectar into honey.

Sex ratio and chromosomes studies were performed on six of the seven species of genus Cyclocephala present in the Lesser Antilles. Most sex ratios based on light trapping are skewed, with a frequent, but not exclusive, strong excess of females. These unbalances vary from species to species and island to island for the same species. Comparing old (seventies) and recent captures, the imbalances seem to increase with time. All of the 72 karyotyped males were diploid: 20,XY. Of the 15 females studied, one (C. dominicensis) was triploid: 30,XXX, a condition that only occurs in parthenogenetic species of beetles. We conclude that parthenogenesis is progressively developing within different sexual populations of Cyclocephala in the Lesser Antilles, which accounts for the excess of females recorded there. We propose that preexisting recessive mutations are the cause and that island colonization, by preventing panmictic reproduction, favours the expression of these recessive mutations. This would account for the accelerated occurrence of new characters (speciation /sub-speciation process), including unusual modes of reproduction such as parthenogenesis, and that several genetically related populations express these characters independently on different islands.

Many species of lady beetles are highly promiscuous and females mate repeatedly even when not sperm-limited. We quantified female reproductive success and progeny development in Hippodamia convergens using a laboratory experiment designed to test whether (1) male novelty (different males), (2) male mating status (virgin, non-virgin) or (3) opportunities for female mate choice, would increase female fitness compared to a similar number of matings with the same male. Daily access to novel males, regardless of their mating status, increased the egg fertility of females, but not their fecundity. Opportunities for mate choice did not improve any measure of female reproductive success compared to arbitrary assignment of males, but slightly increased reproductive rate, as measured by the number of days to produce 15 clutches. The eggs of monogamous females had the fastest eclosion times, but larval development was fastest for progeny of females polyandrous with non-virgin males, and total developmental time did not differ among treatments. In a second experiment, confinement with two males during oviposition disrupted egg clustering and reduced egg fertility, but not female fecundity, relative to confinement with one male or oviposition in solitude, suggesting a negative impact of male harassment on female fitness in the presence of multiple males. However, the continued presence of two males also improved progeny survival and reduced progeny development time relative to female confinement with one, likely due to summation of paternal effects when females were allowed unlimited matings with both males. These results do not rule out genetic benefits of polyandry, but support the view that enhanced egg fertility is a primary benefit, and suggest more subtle benefits may be obtained in the form of additive paternal effects. The average number of female matings in nature may even exceed that required to obtain such benefits if females use "convenience polyandry" to diminish male harassment.

In natural systems plant-insect interactions are influenced by several factors. For instance plants could be characterised by the presence of defensive chemicals and herbivores are forced to evolve resistance against them. There are several studies on induced plant defence, which indicate it can mediate competition between herbivorous insects, shaping host plant choice and community structure. Therefore, realized host plant use can be much narrower than the potential one. A laboratory experiment was done to clear up the possible difference in host plant utilization ability of Melitaea phoebe and Melitaea ornata, especially their utilization of Cirsium pannonicum. The caterpillars were reared individually on three different species of host plant (Ci. pannonicum, Ci. arvense and Centaurea scabiosa). The weights of the larvae were measured every second day and the data analysed using ANOVA. M. phoebe caterpillars developed well and all pupated when fed on Cirsium arvense and Centaurea scabiosa, whereas those fed on Cirsium pannonicum developed poorly and 10% died. In contrast, M. ornata developed well on Ci. pannonicum and the other two host plants. Despite this M. ornata was only found on Ci. pannonicum in Hungary.

Studies of prey suitability are needed to develop efficient mass rearing programs for generalist predators and to understand their potential contribution to integrated pest management. A laboratory study was conducted to evaluate the development and reproductive success of two predatory coccinellids, Oenopia conglobata (L.) and Cheilomenes sexmaculata (Fabricius), reared on diets of the common pistachio psyllid, Agonoscena pistaciae Burckhardt & Lauterer, the cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii (Glover) or a reference diet of Ephestia kuehniella Zeller eggs. Development and reproductive performance of the two coccinellids varied with diet, but egg fertility and immature survival did not. The developmental period (egg-adult) was shortest for both species on A. gossypii. This prey also yielded the shortest preoviposition period and greatest fecundity for C. sexmaculata. The psyllid diet was superior for reproduction in O. conglobata. For both predators, eggs of E. kuehniella were a better diet for development than for reproduction. Life table data indicated that the arboreal O. conglobata was better adapted to A. pistaciae on pistachio trees and might be a more effective biocontrol agent for this pest, despite the fact that C. sexmaculata had a higher intrinsic rate of increase on all diets.

Hoverflies (Diptera: Syrphidae) provide crucial ecological services and are increasingly used as bioindicators in environmental assessment studies. Information is available for a wide range of life history traits at the species level for most Syrphidae but little is recorded about the environmental requirements of forest hoverflies at the stand scale. The aim of this study was to explore whether the structural heterogeneity of a stand influences species richness or abundance of hoverflies in a montane beech-fir forest. We used the catches of Malaise traps set in 2004 and 2007 in three stands in the French Pyrenees, selected to represent a wide range of structural heterogeneity in terms of their vertical structure, tree diversity, deadwood and tree-microhabitats. We assessed hoverfly assemblages by recording species richness, abundance and functional diversity. Malaise traps caught 2,374 hoverflies belonging to 104 species. The catches of hoverflies fluctuated both in species richness and abundance between 2004 and 2007. Strictly forest species were only caught in the most heterogeneous stand. Species strictly associated with fir were not recorded in the least heterogeneous stand although fir was present. Although most of the functional groups were recorded in the three stands, species richness, abundance and functional diversity decreased dramatically from the most heterogeneous to the least heterogeneous stand. However, the species assemblages in the less heterogeneous stands were not perfect subsets of that in the most heterogeneous stand, as some additional species not found in the most heterogeneous stand were also present.

Trissolcus grandis is an important egg parasitoid of sunn pest, Eurygaster integriceps Puton (Hemiptera: Scutelleridae), the most serious pest of wheat in Iran. The thermal requirements of two populations of T. grandis were studied at five constant temperatures ranging from 20-32°C. Thermal thresholds for development were calculated using linear regression and degree-day models were determined by fitting non-linear equations to the data. The lower threshold for development was estimated to be 12.5 and 12.1°C, respectively, for males and females of the Bonab population, compared to 14.4 and 14.5°C for those of the Qaramalek population. Complete development required 143.8 and 162.8 degree-days, respectively, for males and females of the Bonab population and 116.9 and 124.6 for those of the Qaramalek population. Thus, wasps from the warmer region (Qaramalek) developed faster than those from the cooler region (Bonab), but had a higher thermal threshold for initiating development. Bonab females attained their highest fecundity (117.7 ± 7.2) at the lowest temperature tested (20°C), whereas the fecundity of Qaramalek females was maximal (96.8 ± 11.5) at 26°C. Biological control programmes that seek to augment wasp populations in wheat fields early in the spring, when natural rates of sunn pest parasitism tend to be low, should consider wasp thermal requirements to ensure the selection and release of locally-adapted parasitoids.

Karyotypes and testis structure of 14 species representing 9 genera (Latissus, Bubastia, Falcidius, Kervillea, Mulsantereum, Mycterodus, Scorlupaster, Scorlupella and Zopherisca) of the planthopper tribe Issini (Issidae) are presented. All the karyotypes are illustrated by meiotic and occasionally mitotic figures. The male karyotypes of most of the species analyzed are 2n = 26 + X, the exception being Falcidius limbatus, which has a karyotype of 2n = 24 + neo-XY. The latter is the first report of the neo-XY system in the family Issidae. The species studied are found to be similar in having NORs on the largest pair of autosomes, but differ significantly in the amount and distribution of C-heterochromatin along the chromosomes. In contrast to the conserved chromosome numbers, the highly variable follicle number in the testes suggests rapid evolution of the tribe Issini. On the basis of its specific follicle number, it is proposed that Zopherisca tendinosa skaloula Gnezdilov & Drosopoulos, 2006 be upgrade to a species: Z. skaloula stat. n. The cytological and taxonomic significance of results presented are discussed.

The chromosome complements of thirteen species of the planthopper family Dictyopharidae are described and illustrated. For each species, the structure of testes and, on occasion, ovaries is additionally outlined in terms of the number of seminal follicles and ovarioles. The data presented cover the tribes Nersiini, Scoloptini and Dictyopharini of the subfamily Dictyopharinae and the tribes Ranissini, Almanini, and Orgeriini of the Orgeriinae. The data on the tribes Nersiini and Orgeriini are provided for the first time. Males of Hyalodictyon taurinum and Trimedia cf. viridata (Nersiini) have 2n = 26 + X; Scolops viridis, S. sulcipes, and S. abnormis (Scoloptini) 2n = 36 + X; Callodictya krueperi (Dictyopharini) 2n = 26 + X; Ranissus edirneus and Schizorgerius scytha (Ranissini) 2n = 26 + X. Males of Almana longipes and Bursinia cf. genei (Almanini) have 2n = 26 + X and 2n = 24 + XY, respectively. The latter chromosome complement was not recorded previously for the tribe Almanini. Males of Orgerius ventosus and Deserta cf. bipunctata (Orgeriini) have 2n = 26 + X. The testes of males of A. longipes and B. cf. genei each have 4 seminal follicles, which is characteristic of the tribe Almanini. Males of all other species have 6 follicles per testis. When the ovaries of a species were also studied, the number of ovarioles was coincident with that of seminal follicles. For comparison, Capocles podlipaevi (2n = 24 + X and 6 follicles per testis in males) from the Fulgoridae, the sister family to Dictyopharidae, was also studied. We supplemented all the data obtained with our earlier observations on Dictyopharidae. The chromosomal complement of 2n = 28 + X or that of 2n = 26 + X and 6 follicles per testis are suggested to be the ancestral condition among Dictyopharidae, from which taxa with various chromosome numbers and testes each with 4 follicles have differentiated.

Acridids could be an alternative source of protein for feeding to livestock as large numbers can be produced by rearing them on suitable food plants under optimum environmental conditions. The aim of the present study was to find a suitable food plant for the mass culture of the short-horn grasshopper Oxya hyla hyla (Serville). Food consumption and utilization, growth (growth rate, average daily growth, specific growth rate and wet weight gain), survival and life span of this insect reared on Sorghum halepense, Cyanodon dactylon and a mixture of these two plants were determined. The result revealed that the food utilization, growth and survival of this grasshopper depended on the food plant. The nymphs that were reared on C. dactylon consumed less food but had a greater efficiency of conversion of ingested food to body mass, growth performance and survival than those feed on the other two types of food. In contrast, the food consumption and utilization, growth and weight gain of adult grasshoppers was greatest when they were reared on S. halepense. These results indicate that of the plants used in this study C. dactylon is the best for rearing the nymphs and S. halepense for rearing the adults of Oxya hyla hyla.

Tracking the larval development of an insect is important in both applied and basic ecology. Yet, it is difficult to discriminate between the different larval instars of holometabolous insect species, particularly in the field. The methods currently available are of limited use as they rely on an a priori determined size distribution of every immature instar and are irrelevant whenever the distributions of two instars actually overlap. We developed a model that computes, for a given species, the most probable instar of a larva based on its individual head capsule width and the size distribution of the last larval instar. The model presented here is specifically for species of curculionid that develop through four immature instars, but can be adapted for species of weevil with a different number of instars or insects of other taxonomic units. Our method computes the risk error associated with assigning a larva to any of the possible instars and might not assign a larva if its size falls within the overlapping zone of the size distributions of two successive instars. Thus, this parsimonious method might be widely used, notably for wild-caught larvae, and can be readily used thanks to the R package CINID that we developed for that purpose.

Soil cultivation is among the principal factors that determine the structure and properties of soil and also affects the species composition and abundance of soil dwelling arthropods. Carabid beetles are a particularly valuable group of arthropods, the species of which are strongly associated with particular soil environments. This paper discusses the effect of soil tillage on carabid beetle assemblages. The study was carried out near Olsztyn, in northeastern Poland. Six wheat fields, each cultivated using either, conventional or non-inversion, soil tillage, were chosen. Carabid beetles were caught in Barber s traps from early April to the end of October 2011. In total, 7,486 specimens belonging to 55 species of the family Carabidae were captured. The most numerous were Poecilus cupreus, Pterostichus melanarius, Harpalus rufipes, Anchomenus dorsalis and Carabus granulatus. Differences in the abundance of ground beetles and some life history traits were associated with the two soil tillage systems. In particular, ploughing reduced carabid abundance and resulted in the increased activity of medium-sized zoophages and spring breeders.

Various disturbances in forests often result in the formation of open habitats with characteristics that are distinctly different from those of the original forest (microclimate, illumination, stand age and composition). These disturbances affect the habitat heterogeneity in time and space and seem to drive forest succession and changes in biodiversity in forests. Little is known about how the colonization of deforested habitats by Orthoptera is influenced by environmental factors. We studied the association between the structure of orthopteran assemblages and the age of clear-cuts, vegetation structure and other environmental parameters (size, elevation, altitude). This involved 33 clear-cuts of three age categories in broadleaved forests dominated by European beech. The Orthoptera were sampled using sweep netting and by counting individuals recorded along transects that ran parallel to those used for recording the structure of the vegetation. We recorded significant differences in the number and abundance of species in the three age categories of clear-cuts. Grasshopper species were more abundant than bush-crickets in first year clear-cuts. Species capable of flight occured in all three age categories of clear-cuts (>62% of the 27 species recorded). All the species of Orthoptera identified were present in two year-old clear-cuts. The species composition and abundance of Ensifera and Caelifera differed in their association with the six vegetation parameters studied. While the Caelifera occurred in habitats with bare ground the Ensifera mainly occurred in those with a higher proportion of shrubs and trees. There was also a positive correlation between number of species of Orthoptera and area of the clear-cut regardless of its age as well between the number of species of Orthoptera and elevation.

Aphidoidea, endosymbiotic bacteria, bacteriocytes, transovarial transmission of endosymbiotic bacteria The ultrastructure, distribution and transovarial transmission of endosymbiotic bacteria in representatives of six aphid families: Eriosomatidae (Pemphigus spyrothecae, Prociphilus fraxini), Anoeciidae [Anoecia (Anoecia) corni], Drepanosiphidae [Mindarus abietinus, Sipha (Rungsia) maydis, Clethrobius comes, Myzocallis (Lineomyzocallis) walshii], Thelaxidae (Thelaxes dryophila), Aphididae (Delphiniobium junackianum, Aphis viburni, Cavariella theobaldi, Macrosiphoniella tanacetaria) and Lachnidae (Schizolachnus pineti, Eulachnus rileyi) were studied at the ultrastructural level. The ovaries of aphids are accompanied by large organs termed bacteriomes that consist of giant cells termed bacteriocytes. The bacteriocyte cytoplasm is tightly packed with endosymbiotic bacteria. Ultrastructural observations have shown that the bacteria Buchnera aphidicola (primary symbiont of aphids) present in various species are characterized by significant differences in both size and organization of their cytoplasm. In the aphids, Prociphilus fraxini, Sipha (Rungsia) maydis, Thelaxes dryophila, Aphis viburni, Cavariella theobaldi, Macrosiphoniella tanacetaria, Eulachnus rileyi and Schizolachnus pineti, in addition to Buchnera aphidicola, secondary endosymbionts are also present. The bacteriocytes containing secondary endosymbionts are less numerous than those with Buchnera. In Eulachnus rileyi (Lachnidae), in addition to primary and secondary endosymbionts, there is a third type of microorganism. In all species examined both the primary and secondary endosymbionts are transovarially transmitted from mother to offspring.

A novel chromosome complement (2n = 14 = 12 + XY/XX; male/female sex chromosomes), male meiosis behaviour, heterochromatin characterization, and frequency and distribution of chiasmata are described for the first time in specimens from a natural population of the giant water bug, Belostoma candidulum Montandon, 1903 (Heteroptera: Belostomatidae) from Argentina. To date, specimens of B. candidulum have been reported by other authors in a sample from a natural population from Brazil. Our results demonstrate that Argentinean and Brazilian populations have different diploid numbers and chromosomal features. During male meiosis, autosomal bivalents generally show a single chiasma, behave as telokinetic chromosomes (i.e. kinetic activity is restricted to terminal regions), and divide reductionally at anaphase I; in contrast, the sex chromosomes are achiasmatic, behave as univalents and segregate equationally at anaphase I. Among autosomal bivalents of B. candidulum, one is remarkably larger and may present one or two terminal chiasmata, showing rod, V-shaped and ring configurations. Here we propose a new mode of segregation for ring bivalents, since it is not essential that one of the chiasmata is released during anaphase I because alternative sites for microtubule attachment become functional for the normal chromosome segregation to the poles. Heterochromatin content is very scarce in specimens from Argentinean B. candidulum populations, revealing C-positive interstitial and terminal dots in three pairs of autosomes and C-blocks at both ends of X chromosome, whereas the Y chromosome is mainly C-positive. One of the C-positive bands from X and Y chromosomes is DAPI-dull/CMA-bright, which could represent the nucleolus organizing region (NOR) detected by fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH). The location of the NORs in both sex chromosomes allowed us to use them as a cytological marker to describe their behaviour during meiosis. Despite the fact that specimens from the Argentinean and Brazilian populations have been classified as a single species due to their morphological similarity, our results suggest that both populations are chromosomal races or even morphologically-identical cryptic species. The results obtained support the hypothesis that karyotype of B. candidulum originated through autosomal fusions and the fusion of the X and Y chromosomes with the ancestral NOR-autosomal pair. Lastly, the genus Belostoma represents an excellent model for assessing the main mechanisms involved in the karyotype evolution in organisms with holokinetic chromosomes, from which inferences may be made concerning its broader ecology and evolution.

Using equations based on the law of total effective temperatures, we estimated the thermal constants (LDT, the lower development threshold, and SET, the sum of effective temperatures) of egg development for 14 populations of 13 species of carabid beetles (eight belonging to the tribe Zabrini, one to Platynini and four to Pterostichini). We compared the estimates of the thermal constants obtained using three commonly used equations (D = SET / (T - LDT); 1 / D = a + b . T, where LDT = -a / b, and SET = 1 / b; and D . T = SET + D . LDT) and two data formats: data points for all the individuals and means for each temperature. We found that, for most species, estimates of both LDT and SET of egg development obtained using the three models were similar and that using means resulted in larger standard errors (SE) than using all data points. We provide evidence for inter-correlation among the thermal constants, showing that a decrease in the estimate of one constant is accompanied by an increase in the estimate of the other constant. For seven species for which sufficient data were available we investigated the geographical variation in their thermal constants. We found significant variation in both constants for three species, in only one in one species and in three species there was no significant variation among geographically distant populations at p < 0.05. For eight out of the nine autumn-breeding species studied, egg mortality significantly increased at high temperatures. For future studies, we recommend the use of the third method (D . T = SET + D . LDT) for estimating thermal constants for several reasons: (i) it is linear (i.e., simple to compute); (ii) the thermal constants are parameters of the equation, and therefore, their SEs are directly estimated; (iii) it allows the use of all data points (i.e., reduces the SE of the estimates of thermal constants); and (iv) the thermal requirements of different species or populations can be directly compared using ANCOVA.

Laboratory experiments were conducted to examine the effects of photoperiod and temperature on the pupation behaviour of the parasitoid, Microplitis mediator (Haliday) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), parasitizing larvae of Mythimna separata Walker (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). A combination of long photoperiod (14 + h L) and warm temperatures (20-24°C) caused parasitized caterpillars to climb to upper plant parts where the parasitoid produced a green, non-diapausing cocoon on a green leaf, initially retaining the dying caterpillar host as a protective covering. In contrast, short photoperiod (8-10 h L) and low temperature (16-18°C) induced host caterpillars to descend the plant where the parasitoid produced a brown, diapausing cocoon either hanging by silk from a senescing leaf or simply lying on the soil, but without any continued association with the host. These findings illustrate the potential for seasonal environmental cues to simultaneously mediate diapause induction, cocoon polymorphism, and alternate forms of host behaviour modification in a hymenopterous parasitoid.

 
Quantitative behavioural traits associated with egg-laying, such as the level of selectivity for host-supports and the size of egg clutches, are generally thought to be of great importance for the subsequent survival and development of offspring. These quantitative traits, however, are often difficult to assess reliably by direct observation in the field. This is particularly the case when the insects are very tiny, which is the case for most galling and leaf mining insects. However, a new approach, the "Melba" procedure, allows the indirect inference of these quantitative traits, using easily recorded field-data only. Application of this diagnostic procedure to a large series of samples of beech leaves (Fagus silvatica), harbouring either a leaf miner, Phyllonorycter maestingella (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) or one or the other of two galling insects, Mikiola fagi or Hartigiola annulipes (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) indicates that the leaf miner differs significantly from the two species of galling insect in term of combined values of host-acceptance ratio and average clutch-size, while the two gall-inducing species remain substantially undistinguishable from each other according to these traits. Thus, the galling insects (i) show stronger selectivity for a host than does the miner at any given average clutch-size and (ii) show larger average clutch-size at any given level of selectivity. That is, for at least these three species, the galling insects show a greater level of selectivity when choosing leaves to oviposit on but, then, tend to lay larger egg-clutches. These differences may be due (i) to the gall-inducing process requiring far more of leaf tissues than being simply palatable, which makes it likely that galling species will be more selective in their choice of leaves than leaf miners and (ii) to the capacity of galls to become nutrient sinks, which may help explain why the galling insects laid larger egg clutches. However, whether these trends can be regarded as general rather specific to this particular case, depends on the outcome of future studies on other groups of insects with similar life histories.

Psocids are small insects that feed primarily on fungi, algae, lichens and organic detritus. Although they are relatively common in forest ecosystems, the general patterns in their abundance and diversity in boreal forests are still poorly known. We report records of 20 species of psocids quantitatively collected from four species of woody plants (Pinus sylvestris, Picea abies, Betula pubescens and B. pendula) at 50 sites in northern Europe, located between 59° and 70°N and between 10° and 60°E. Seven species were found only on conifers, seven other species only on birches and six species inhabited both birches and conifers. The overall density of psocids was 18.9 ± 2.9 exx/kg (d.w. of plant material). Densities varied among the studied species of trees, being highest on P. abies and lowest on B. pendula. The species diversity was highest on B. pendula and lowest on B. pubescens. Both diversity and abundance of arboreal psocids in northern Europe decreased with latitude. However, due to the relatively low number of specimens collected, the conclusions about the diversity of psocids should be seen as tentative.

The functional role and commercial importance of insect pigments have been studied for well over a century. They are classified into those synthesized by insects, which include anthraquinones, aphins, pterins, tetrapyrroles, ommochromes, melanins and papiliochromes, and those sequestered from their host plants, the antioxidative carotenoids and water-soluble flavonoids. They can also be categorized into those that are produced by cyclization of linear precursors, e.g. anthraquinones, aphins and tetrapyrroles and those derived from cyclic precursors such as pterins, ommochromes, melanins and anthocyanins. Anthraquinones and aphins are derived by cyclization of linear polyketides via successive condensation of simple carboxylic acid metabolites and occur in two major Superfamilies of Hemiptera, the Coccoidea and Aphidoidae, respectively. Ommochromes, tetrapyrroles and melanins are derived from different amino acid precursors, tryptophan, glycine and tyrosine, respectively. Apart from providing body colouration, ommochromes are visual pigments, melanins act as a protectant against UV and tetrapyrroles facilitate oxygen transport to cells. Papiliochromes are synthesized using both, the essential amino acids tyrosine and tryptophan. Pterins are derived from guanosine triphosphate (GTP) and are also present in ommatidia of eyes. The sequestered pigments, anthocyanins and carotenoids, are synthesized from phenylalanine and by condensation of two isoprene units, respectively, in plants. The biosyntheses of chemochromes in insects are governed by a complex set of enzymes, pathways and genetics. This review provides a comprehensive understanding of the molecules that are not only responsible for the striking colours but also provide functional benefits for insects. The commercially important pigments are also discussed.

The gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar (L.) (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae), causes enormous damage to broadleaved forests in the northern hemisphere where it frequently defoliates large areas of forest. Since outbreaks begin in oak forests, its most suitable habitat, we determined the preference and performance of gypsy moth larvae when reared on three species of native oaks: sessile oak, Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.; Turkey oak, Q. cerris L.; and Hungarian oak, Q. frainetto (Ten.). Leaf expansion and selected physical and chemical characteristics of the oak leaves were also measured. The shortest development time and highest relative consumption (RCR), growth rate (RGR), assimilation efficiency (AD), efficiency of conversion of ingested food (ECI) and digested food into larval biomass (ECD) values were recorded when larvae were fed on Turkey oak. Two-choice tests revealed that Turkey oak is the preferred host plant. It had the highest total soluble protein and leaf nitrogen content, lowest C/N ratio and its phenology was well synchronized with the hatching of the larvae. The worst performance and lowest preference index were recorded when fed on Hungarian oak, the leaves of which had the lowest protein and nitrogen content, while in terms of the values for preference and performance the larvae fed on sessile oak were intermediate. Our results indicate that forests with Turkey oak are highly likely to be defoliated by gypsy moth larvae and therefore should be regularly monitored.

The correlation between dorsal wing colours and spectral sensitivity of the compound eyes of 13 species of thecline butterflies, consisting of 8 sexually monomorphic and 5 dimorphic species, was investigated. Spectral reflectance of the dorsal surfaces of the wings was measured using a spectrophotometer and spectral sensitivities using electroretinography. All 13 species examined showed a common basic pattern of spectral sensitivity with a primary peak at a wavelength of 440-460 nm. Detailed analyses of the deviations in sensitivity from the basic pattern revealed a correlation in monomorphic species with conspicuous wing hues, especially in males.

Morphology of mature larvae of two Central European species of Scydmaenus Latreille is described and illustrated: S. (s. str.) tarsatus Müller & Kunze and S. (Cholerus) hellwigii (Herbst). Inaccuracies in previous descriptions of S. tarsatus are discussed and the following combination of characters is defined as diagnostic for Scydmaenus: epicranial sutures reaching posteromedian margins of antennal insertions; presence of a single pair of stemmata and epicranial supraantennal pits; anterior row of subtriangular teeth on epipharynx; mandibles falciform and without mesal teeth; antennomere 3 rudimentary; antennal sensory appendage subconical and asymmetrical; maxilla with galea and lacinia; labium strongly constricted between mentum and prementum; thoracic tergites undivided along midline; head capsule, thoracic tergites, laterotergites and abdominal segments except sternite 1 densely setose; thoracic sternites and abdominal sternite1 largely asetose; and lack of urogomphi. We also describe the feeding behaviour of immature S. tarsatus and demonstrate for the first time that Scydmaeninae larvae can feed on live springtails and not armoured mites. In the introduction we provide a summary of the literature on all hitherto known preimaginal stages of Scydmaeninae.

We used geometric morphometrics to determine variation in the morphology of the forewings of individuals in 20 populations of Calopteryx splendens s.l. in Eurasia and related these to the circum-specific taxonomy of this taxon. We found differences in shape, with the largest and smallest centroid size of the wings in adjacent northern (orientalis) and western (intermedia) populations in Iran, respectively, so isolation and relationship are not necessarily determined by distance, but often associated with the stream basin inhabited. The variation in wing shape, however, was much greater. with Populations at the eastern edge of the range (Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and East Kazakhstan) uniquely different. Oddly, no taxonomic name is associated with them, although they may be among the oldest representatives of the splendens complex. The European and Asian populations are in two separate clades. One of these includes insects with no to a medium-sized wing spot, which does not reach the tip of the wing (waterstoni-group), while the other includes insects with very broad wing spots, or, when short, it extends to the very tip of the wings and most females are androchrome (ancilla or intermedia group). Turkmenistan and northern Iranian population form a separate line inside this clade, which we equate with Calopteryx orientalis. South Albanian and Greek populations are in a separate branch corresponding to ssp. balcanica; two populations from Ireland and Italy form a branch that has no equivalent in traditional taxonomy, while Calopteryx xanthostoma was not identified by its wing shape. Understanding this multitude of phenotypes and the enormous amount of variation within certain populations but not in others becomes easy if one assumes there were two probable late Pleistocene waves of migration, the first of insects lacking spots that migrated east and westwards from the South Black Sea basin, the second, perhaps from the west Caspian, composed of heavily spotted insects with androchromic females. The hybridization between these two waves resulted in the current plethora of colour forms and accounts for why similar phenotypes may turn up independently in widely distant locations.

Competition is a major force organizing ant communities and results in co-occurring species evolving different strategies for foraging and use of space. Territorial species, as top dominants exclude each other, while shaping the local ant communities both qualitatively and quantitatively. In this study we examined how two territorial species, Formica polyctena and Lasius fuliginosus, can coexist in adjacent territories over long periods of time, and whether they affect co-occurring species of ants in different ways. Field observations in the absence and in the presence of baits were carried out around a L. fuliginosus nest complex surrounded by a polydomous F. polyctena colony in S Finland in 2007-2009. Both species controlled their territories, but were affected by changes in the abundance of the other species and the distance from L. fuliginosus' main nest. They did not have the same effect on the subordinate species in the absence of baits, but the abundance of Myrmica spp. recorded at baits was negatively affected by both of the territorial species. The preferences of the different species for the artificial food sources differed: L. fuliginosus and F. polyctena preferred tuna to honey and Myrmica spp. honey to tuna. More individuals of the subordinate species were recorded in the territory of F. polyctena than of L. fuliginosus, although conflicts with this territorial species were also recorded. During the three years of the study almost no overlaps in the territories of the two territorial species were recorded, and there were mostly minor shifts in the boundaries of the territories. Differences between the two territorial species in their use of space and competitive effects ensured their coexistence at this particular site in Finland.

Despite the importance of saprophagous macroarthropods as key facilitators of plant litter decomposition within ecosystems and their likely sensitivity to global climate change and land-use change, a lack of ecological data has precluded attempts to explain their distribution patterns in terms of traits. Using an extensive set of large-scale and long-term biological records, the distribution patterns of 33 woodlice (Crustacea: Oniscidea) species in Britain were characterised by their range size (area of occupancy) and aggregation (degree to which occupied squares are clustered across the range). Body size and seven ecological traits were examined as correlates of range size and fill, while controlling for phylogeny and recording intensity, and comparing fine and broad-scale measures of habitat heterogeneity. Species that used a greater diversity of habitats had larger range sizes. Broad categorisation of habitats (by dominant vegetation) alongside other traits was less accurate in predicting range size than fine-scale habitat (microsites where individuals were discovered) data. The latter explained 25% more variance than broad-scale habitat data, highlighting the value of coupling biological recording of species with data on micro-habitat. Habitat use is an important trait in explaining distribution patterns and we conclude that ensuring land cover heterogeneity will favour conservation of saprophagous macro-arthropod diversity.

This paper consists of an up to date annotated catalogue of the Afrotropical genera of Alticinae (Chrysomelidae), with biogeographical notes on the flea beetle fauna occurring in Sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar. The following new synonymies are proposed: Eugonotes Jacoby, 1897 (a subgenus of Sanckia Duvivier, 1891) = Brancucciella Medvedev, 1995 syn. n.; Amphimela Chapuis, 1875 = Dibolosoma Jacoby, 1897 syn. n.; Amphimela Chapuis, 1875 = Halticova Fairmaire, 1898 syn. n.; Podagrica Chevrolat, 1837 = Podagrixena Bechyné, 1968 syn. n.; Aphthona Chevrolat, 1837 = Pseudeugonotes Jacoby, 1899 syn. n.; Nisotra Baly, 1864 = Pseudonisotra Bechyné, 1968 syn. n. The following new combinations are proposed: Afrorestia sjostedti (Weise, 1910) comb. n. (from Crepidodera); Bechuana natalensis (Jacoby, 1906) comb. n. (from Ochrosis); Sesquiphaera natalensis (Jacoby, 1906) comb. n. (from Sphaeroderma). The genus Hildenbrandtina Weise, 1910 is trasferred from Galerucinae to Alticinae. New distributional data for many genera in the Afrotropical region is provided.

The African genus Figura Ukrainsky, 2006 is revised. A detailed redescription of its morphology is presented. Three new species are described, F. bitalensis sp. n., F. lineata sp. n. and F. ruwenzorica sp. n. All species are illustrated. A key to all species and a map showing the distribution of the genus Figura are provided.

In predatory ladybirds male embryos in clutches of eggs infected with male-killing bacterial endosymbionts do not hatch and are consumed by female hatchlings. Moreover, it is predicted that infection with male-killing bacteria should be prevalent in a ladybird population if the fitness advantage to female ladybirds due to the resulting reallocation of resources is high. We compared male-killer bacterial prevalence in two sibling species of the ladybird genus Harmonia that use different host ranges. Harmonia yedoensis feeds mostly on the highly elusive pine aphid and its hatchlings can greatly enhance their ability to capture prey and thus their survival by consuming un-hatched eggs in the clutch. In contrast, Harmonia axyridis feeds on a wide range of prey and consumption of un-hatched eggs by the hatchlings does not necessarily increase their foraging success. In the study area where these two species of ladybird occur sympatrically 14 of the 22 females of H. yedoensis (64%) laid clutches of eggs of which approximately only a half hatched and did not produce male offspring, whereas only one of 12 of the females of H. axyridis (8%) exhibited symptoms indicating infection with male-killing bacteria. In the H. yedoensis that exhibited symptoms of being infected with male-killing bacteria, the total allocation of resources to each hatchling, which was provided by laying larger eggs and eating the un-hatched eggs in the clutch, was considerable. These results suggest that the difference in the prevalence of infection with male-killing bacteria in these two species of ladybird may reflect differences in the quality of their prey and their foraging behaviour.

Among animal constructions, the orb webs of spiders are perfect geometrical architectural models. Webs are constructed by means of a succession of behaviours, which are often considered as instinctive and stereotyped. Anomalies in web structure are considered to be a consequence of variability in behaviour. In order to assess the variability in web structure, the spider Zygiella x-notata was allowed to build webs in the laboratory under standardized conditions. Webs (n = 127) were examined for anomalies, which were defined as modifications in the geometrical structure. Ten anomalies in the structure of webs produced by females, aged from 16 to 21 days after their adult moult, are described. The frequency of anomalies per web varies from 5 to 98. A very low percentage of the spiral elements of a web (less than 5%) were affected. Anomalies in the radii were less numerous (mean = 3 ± 3) than those in the sticky spiral (mean = 21 ± 11). Anomalies in the sticky spiral were different and more frequent in the peripheral than central parts of the webs. They were also relatively more numerous in the upper than in the lower part of the webs. Total number of anomalies was positively correlated with particular web characteristics (capture area, length of capture thread, width of the lower part of the web and mean distance between two spiral turns in the lower part) but not to the physical characteristics of the spiders (mass and size). Our results indicate that the orb webs of spiders, which are considered to be perfect geometrical structures, include anomalies mainly in the structure of the sticky spiral. These anomalies were the result of variability in behaviour during web building. In conclusion, their identification and description enable one to use them in spider webs as an index of behavioural variability.