The multicoloured Asian ladybird Harmonia axyridis is an invasive insect that can negatively influence biodiversity and human economy in invaded areas. According to the enemy release hypothesis, invasive alien species are often little affected by parasites and other enemies. We studied the prevalence of common parasites of insects infesting and infecting H. axyridis in NW Poland. A large sample of 2351 individuals was collected and divided into two groups: 1180 beetles were dissected and examined for the presence of eugregarines, nematodes and Laboulbeniales fungi, and 751 were checked for phoretic mites. Our results show that H. axyridis is indeed parasitized infrequently. The prevalence of eugregarines and nematodes was very low (1.5% and 0.4%, respectively). No specimens of Laboulbeniales or phoretic mites were found. Our study indicates that in NW Poland H. axyridis is rarely infested or infected by parasites. This paper reports for the first time the infection of H. axyridis by the eugregarine Gregarina barbarara.

Two new microleafhopper genera of Empoascini within the subfamily Typhlocybinae (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae), Condensella Xu, Dietrich & Qin gen. n., based on the type species C. filamenta Xu, Dietrich & Qin sp. n., and Endogena Xu, Dietrich & Qin gen. n., based on the type species E. flava Xu, Dietrich & Qin sp. n., are described from southern China and Thailand. Male habitus photos and illustrations of male genitalia of the two new species are provided. Comparative notes on related genera are provided. Phylogenetic relationships and the status of genus groups within the tribe are also discussed.

Conifer bark beetles are well known to be associated with fungal complexes, which consist of pathogenic ophiostomatoid fungi as well as obligate saprotroph species. However, there is little information on fungi associated with Ips acuminatus in central and eastern Europe. The aim of the study was to investigate the composition of the fungal communities associated with the pine engraver beetle, I. acuminatus, in the forest-steppe zone in Ukraine and to evaluate the pathogenicity of six associated ophiostomatoid species by inoculating three-year-old Scots pine seedlings with these fungi. In total, 384 adult beetles were collected from under the bark of declining and dead Scots pine trees at two different sites. Fungal culturing from 192 beetles resulted in 447 cultures and direct sequencing of ITS rRNA from 192 beetles in 496 high-quality sequences. Identification of the above revealed that the overall fungal community was composed of 60 species. Among these, the most common were Entomocorticium sp. (24.5%), Diplodia pinea (24.0%), Ophiostoma ips (16.7%), Sydowia polyspora (15.1%), Graphilbum cf rectangulosporium (15.1%), Ophiostoma minus (13.8%) and Cladosporium pini-ponderosae (13.0%). Pathogenicity tests were done using six species of ophiostomatoid fungi, which were inoculated into Scots pine seedlings. All ophiostomatoid fungi tested successfully infected seedlings of Scots pine with varying degrees of virulence. Ophiostoma minus was the only fungus that caused dieback in inoculated seedlings. It is concluded that I. acuminatus vectors a species-rich fungal community including pathogens such as D. pinea and O. minus. The fungal community reported in the present study is different from that reported in other regions of Europe. Pathogenicity tests showed that O. minus was the most virulent causing dieback in seedlings of Scots pine, while other fungi tested appeared to be only slightly pathogenic or completely non-pathogenic.

We investigated the predatory potential and food preference of different life stages of Coccinella septempunctata L. for a nutritious aphid (mustard aphid, Lipaphis erysimi) and toxic aphid (cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae). We provided all the life stages of C. septempunctata with either L. erysimi or B. brassicae and found that the second, third and fourth instar larvae and adult females of this predator consumed daily greater numbers of L. erysimi. However, the first instar larvae and adult males consumed similar numbers of both of these aphids. In choice condition, each larva, adult males and females were each provided separately with a mixed aphid diet in three proportions (i.e. low: high, equal: equal and high: low densities of L. erysimi: B. brassicae). We hypothesized that life stages of C. septempunctata will prefer L. erysimi regardless of its proportions. Laboratory experiments supported this hypothesis only at the adult level in terms of high values of β and C preference indices. However, it rejects this hypothesis at the larval level, as larvae preferred B. brassicae when provided with certain combinations and showed no preference in a few combinations. We infer that mixtures of nutritious and toxic aphids may enable this ladybird to overcome any probable nutritional deficiency and/or reduce the toxicity of a toxic diet, especially for the larvae. Results of the treatment in which a high proportion of B. brassicae were consumed along with fewer L. erysimi indicates that a mixed diet could be better for the development of immature stages of C. septempunctata.

Members of the clade Trichophora (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Pentatomomorpha) have trichobothria on their abdominal sterna. There is no comparative study of the fine structure of abdominal trichobothria in the group and until now the trichobothria of their immatures were virtually unknown. The fine structure of the abdominal trichobothrial complex (= the trichobothrium and its associated structures) of adults of 98 species belonging to 25 families in 5 superfamilies and larvae of 7 species belonging to 7 families in 2 superfamilies of Trichophora were examined using scanning electron microscopy. This study indicates that the fine structure of the abdominal trichobothria is very variable and useful for determining evolutionary lineages within the clade. Six types of bothria, three of trichomes and three of microtrichia are recognized and their evolutionary transformations discussed. Changes in the size of trichomes, and density and size of the microtrichia during the postembryonic development of selected species are discussed.

The effects of different abiotic agents that may modulate the activity of an insect's immune system are reviewed. These agents include insecticides, chitin synthesis inhibitors, juvenile hormone analogues, inert particles, antibiotics, heavy metals, radiation and miscellaneous substances. The significance of studying immunomodulation in insects treated with abiotic agents in relation to both insect control and insect-borne parasitic diseases and the link between immunomodulation in insects post-treatment with both abiotic and biotic agents are discussed.

In the present study we tested whether long-winged (macropterous) and short-winged (brachypterous) adult females of the firebug Pyrrhocoris apterus (L.) differ in their reproductive capacity and length of life. The following seven physiological markers were measured in these females: lengths of the pre-oviposition period (pre-OP), inter-ovipositon period (inter-OP) and post-oviposition period (post-OP), and the mean number of eggs per batch, total number of eggs, mean total number of egg batches laid and lifespan of the females. The results showed that macropterous and brachypterous females significantly differed in the length of the pre-OP, which was significantly shorter in brachypterous (7.95 ± 1.75 days) than in macropterous females (26.84 ± 9.86 days), but there was no significant difference between the lengths of the inter-OP in brachypterous (4.00-8.79 days) and macropterous (3.00-9.89 days) females. In contrast the length of the post-OP was significantly longer in brachypterous (48.23 ± 30.95 days) than in macropterous females (35.02 ± 17.32 days). Except for the 2nd and 3rd egg batches there was no significant difference between the average numbers of eggs in the other egg batches laid by females of the two wing morphs. Total number of eggs laid by macropterous females during their whole lifespan was not significantly lower (326.47 ± 155.65 eggs) than by brachypterous females (382.82 ± 207.52 eggs), but associated with the lower number of egg batches laid by macropterous (13) than by brachypterous females (19). However, there was no significant difference in the longevity of brachypterous (95.43 ± 41.21 days) and macropterous (93.40 ± 21.18 days) females. The relationship of these results to the reproductive arrest, inactivity of the endocrine gland, corpus allatum, and different levels of adipokinetic hormone in macropterous females is discussed.

There are important but inconsistent differences in breeding site preference between the blow flies Lucilia sericata (Meigen, 1826) and L. cuprina (Wiedemann, 1830) (Diptera: Calliphoridae) that have significance for medical and veterinary science. These inconsistencies might arise from hybridisation. The species are difficult to distinguish using external morphology, although the male genitalia are distinctive and there are reliable molecular markers. Molecular evidence of modern hybridisation, derived from a newly developed nuclear marker, the period (per) gene, is presented here. This has implications for identifications of these species based on mtDNA, and may lead to an explanation of the medical and veterinary anomalies noted in these species.

We studied the effects of global warming and rising temperatures on the ground beetle fauna of Bavarian beech forests using the space for time approach at two geographical scales. The first was a Bavarian-wide gradient of 50 plots in beech forests and the second a regional gradient in the Bavarian Forest in the mountains in eastern Bavaria consisting of 48 plots, which also included subalpine spruce forests. For purposes of validation, we used backdrop data from 413 additional plots all across Bavaria from a wide range of forest habitats. We found five species that would be favoured and six species that would be disadvantaged by rising temperatures in beech forests. For another five species the conditions within the gradient studied reach both their minimum and their maximum temperatures. As a consequence of increasing temperatures there will be winners and losers in these forests and the species composition of ground beetle communities will change. Approximately the same number of species is likely to profit as will be affected negatively. However, when considering the "global responsibility species" for Germany, the balance is negative. Species may react differently in different habitats and at different regional scales, which must be taken into consideration when applying the results.

Herbivory on liverworts is rarely reported. We studied the effects of feeding by larvae of the sciarid fly Scatopsciara cunicularius on the growth of the thalloid liverwort Marchantia polymorpha at two different constant temperatures, 12°C and 22°C. Larvae reared at the lower temperature fed slower and over a longer period of time, which resulted in more damage and a greater reduction in the growth of the liverwort than that caused by those reared at the higher temperature. The reduction in growth of the liverwort was positively density-dependent in terms of number of larvae at both temperatures. These results indicate that the larvae of S. cunicularius are likely to be an effective means of controlling M. polymorpha, which is a common weed in plant nurseries and greenhouse cultures.

Many species of carabid beetles are important pre- and post-dispersal seed feeders of herbaceous plants. Here we summarise data from dissections, field observations, rearing and "cafeteria" experiments on 55 granivorous and 188 omnivorous species that occur in Italy. We tested the hypothesis that seed feeding carabids are restricted to taxa with pronounced morphological adaptations for manipulating and crushing seeds in both the larval and adult stages. The feeding guilds of carabids were rearranged into the following groups: (i) strict predators with long mandibles and predaceous larvae, often depending also on non-prey food; (ii) omnivorous species with stout mandibles and larvae of a seed-eating morphotype; (iii) granivorous species, feeding only on seeds with larvae sometimes of the scarabeoid c-form type. The seed feeding carabids in the Italian fauna belong to the tribe Zabrini (Amara and Zabrus genera) and to all the Harpalinae (sub)tribes, from Anisodactylini to Ditomina. The time of reproduction seems to be associated with habitat preference; wetland or dry open land, rather than true granivorous versus omnivorous habits, but in stenophagous seed feeders, a phenological coincidence with particular plants is sometimes recorded.

Ovipositing females from invasive (Krasnodar Territory of Russia) and native (Far East of Russia) populations of Harmonia axyridis were fed one of a set of diets ranging from 50 Myzus persicae aphids every day to 1 aphid every 10 days and all were also provided with a 10% sugar solution. The experiment was conducted at 20°C under short (12 h) and long (18 h) day conditions. Most of the females from the native population that consumed 50 or 10 aphids per day continued to oviposit under both long and short day conditions. Females that consumed 1 aphid per day or every 2 days practically stopped laying eggs but under long day conditions their ovaries were still active, whereas under short day conditions ca 50% of them were reproductively inactive (only germaria present) and had a well-developed fat body. Further reduction in diet resulted in an increase in the proportion of reproductively inactive females. However, about half of the females that terminated oogenesis under long day conditions had poorly developed fat bodies, which indicates that diapause was not induced. For the females from the invasive population, both photoperiodic and trophic effects were weak: under short day conditions, some females entered diapause when prey was abundant, whereas about 50% (independent of photoperiod) did not enter diapause when starved. This risk-spreading strategy, possibly, facilitates the adaptation of this invasive ladybird to unpredictable environmental conditions.

Many territorial species of butterfly are sexually dimorphic in their wing colours, and males of such species frequently fight each other, probably attracted by the rival's wing colour. On the other hand, male behaviour should be directed to acquiring mates to increase their fitness, and thus should be sensitive to (usually cryptic) female wing colour. The present experiments aimed to determine whether the conspicuous male colour or cryptic female colour is more attractive to the territorial males of two lycaenid species, Chrysozephyrus smaragdinus and Neozephyrus japonicus. A pair of female and male wing models was presented simultaneously in the field to a male. The results indicate that the males of both species were preferentially attracted by the female wing model. In N. japonicus, in which the wing colour of females is polymorphic, males preferred particular types of female wings, in that they were more strongly attracted to the type-B model with a blue patch on the forewing than the type-O model, which lacked a blue patch.

The state of preservation of the bug Sehirus carpathiensis J.A. Lis, Vršanský & Schlögl, sp. n. (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Cydnidae) from the Lakšárska Nová Ves Formation at Cerová (Slovakia) supports extremely rapid sinking and burial in upper bathyal Early Miocene sediments. The specimen originated from land at most a few kilometers away, but transport via a river can be excluded as the head and wings are still attached. Its most likely source based on fossil flora and the habitat of several living representatives of the genus is a riparian habitat in an adjacent area of land. Phylogenetically the new species is closely related to both Oligocene and living representatives of the genus, thus indicating an early Paleogene origin of the genus (like many other living insect genera). The observations based on two samples from one area (Czech Republic) indicate that terrestrial insects are occasionally preserved in deep marine environments, but overlooked due to their usually fragmentary and obscure nature of the preservation. The newly developed KVANT full-profile confocal measurement revealed a sample roughness Ra = 1.3-2.0 µm and abdomen submerged in the matrix 300 µm deeper than the more rigid pronotum.

The oldest butterfly fossil known, which was formed about 55 Ma in what is now Denmark, is described. The fragments of its forewing venation indicates it belongs to the Hesperiidae. Further reconstruction indicates that it fits in the Coeliadinae and is close to the extant genera Hasora and Burara. It is here described as Protocoeliades kristenseni gen. et sp. n. It is the first butterfly fossil found on a continent (Europe) where its closest relatives do not currently occur. Its position on the phylogenetic tree of the Coeliadinae and its importance in understanding the time dimension in the evolution of butterflies, and their ecological and biogeographic implications are discussed.

Spalangia cameroni Perkins (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) is sold commercially as a biocontrol agent of filth flies, including the house fly, Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae). For this reason, S. cameroni is mass-reared for inundative releases to control harmful flies. However, the mass-rearing protocols include very little information on the influence of natal host on subsequent host selection by parasitoids with more than one potential host as in the genus Spalangia. Here, we report on the use of S. cameroni against M. domestica. The S. cameroni were reared using Ceratitis capitata Wiedemann (Diptera: Tephritidae) (natal host) pupae for several generations. Freeze-killed fly pupae were used in assays to determine the fecundity, number of adult progeny and sex-ratio of this parasitoid. Realized fecundity and number of adult progeny were greater when provided with house fly pupae than Mediterranean fruit fly pupae. Thus S. cameroni parasitized more house fly pupae than C. capitata pupae, even though the parasitoid was reared on Mediterranean fruit fly for many generations. These results indicate that S. cameroni reared on C. capitata can be successfully used in inundative releases against both fruit flies (agriculture) and house flies (livestock farming).

Sequence data for the nuclear ITS2 region and part of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene were used to reveal intraspecific phylogeography and population genetic structure of the oak gall wasp Trigonaspis synaspis from Anatolia. One hundred and sixty six individuals representing 21 populations yielded 50 unique cyt b haplotypes and 15 ITS2 alleles. Genetic diversity estimates indicated the existence of high molecular variation, with average gene diversities of 0.85541 and 0.3119 for cyt b and ITS2 respectively. Likewise, nucleotide diversity was 0.01346 for cyt b and 0.0015 for ITS2. Pairwise divergence ranged from 0.2 to 3.1% between cyt b haplotypes, and from 0.2 to 2.8% between ITS2 alleles. Phylogenetic analyses of the cyt b haplotypes conducted using three different approaches produced mostly similar topologies, and major clades generally grouped haplotypes with similar geographic origins. Contrary to the mtDNA results, ITS2 analyses produced largely similar but polytomous topologies lacking apparent geographic structure. Application of the widely used insect mitochondrial molecular clock linked the origin of major phylogeographic structure to the effects of the Quaternary climatic oscillations. The outgroup haplotypes of T. megaptera are inferred to have diverged from T. synaspis around the late Pliocene. Intraspecific node ages in T. synaspis link major clade structure to the Pleistocene glacial cycles. Geographical formations in Anatolia were also probably an important factor in shaping the phylogeographic structure of T. synaspis.

The macrozoobenthos in saline pools at dumps in a former coal mining area was studied over a period of two years. Due to specific environmental conditions these pools are unique in the Czech Republic. Extremely high values of salinity (up to 11‰) along with a low concentration of dissolved phosphorus (0.01-0.1 mg.l^-1) are typical of some of the water in this area. The pools were grouped into three categories based on their conductivity values and treated using cow dung, municipal wastewater treatment sludge and inorganic NPK (nitrogen-phosphorus-potassium) fertilizer at doses recommended for carp ponds. The application of fertilizer had a positive effect on the density and biomass of all the groups in the macrozoobenthos. The highest and the lowest increases in macrozoobenthos biomass were recorded after the application of NPK and cow dung, respectively. However, the application of fertilizer had no effect on the diversity of macrozoobenthos. Chironomus aprilinus, recorded in the Czech Republic for the first time, inhabited all pools with conductivity ranges of between 5,000-16,000 µS.cm^-1. The density of C. aprilinus larvae increased with increasing salinity reaching a maximum of about 17,083 ind.m^-2 (biomass - 82 g.m^-2). Analysis of C. aprilinus phenology revealed a bivoltine pattern with the summer generation of larvae reaching a maximum in June-July and the overwintering generation in October to November.

Emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis, is a destructive invasive forest pest in North America and European Russia. This pest species is rapidly spreading in European Russia and is likely to arrive in other countries soon. The aim is to analyze the ecological consequences of the establishment of this pest in European Russia and investigate (1) what other xylophagous beetles develop on trees affected by A. planipennis, (2) how common is the parasitoid of the emerald ash borer Spathius polonicus (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Doryctinae) and what is the level of parasitism by this species, and (3) how susceptible is the native European ash species Fraxinus excelsior to A. planipennis. A survey of approximately 1000 Fraxinus pennsylvanica trees damaged by A. planipennis in 13 localities has shown that Hylesinus varius (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae), Tetrops starkii (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) and Agrilus convexicollis (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) were common on these trees. Spathius polonicus is frequently recorded. About 50 percent of late instar larvae of A. planipennis sampled were parasitized by S. polonicus. Maps of the distributions of T. starkii, A. convexicollis and S. polonicus before and after the establishment of A. planipennis in European Russia were compiled. It is hypothesized that these species, which are native to the West Palaearctic, spread into central European Russia after A. planipennis became established there. Current observations confirm those of previous authors that native European ash Fraxinus excelsior is susceptible to A. planipennis, increasing the threat posed by this pest. The establishment of A. planipennis has resulted in a cascade of ecological effects, such as outbreaks of other xylophagous beetles in A. planipennis-infested trees. It is likely that the propagation of S. polonicus will reduce the incidence of outbreaks of A. planipennis.

Aphis fabae and Myzus persicae (Hemiptera: Aphididae) are insect pests that damage sugar beet and bean crops. Both are responsible for losses in yield and transmission of viral diseases, and may be present on the same host at the same time. Three parasitoid species, Aphidius colemani, Lysiphlebus testaceipes and Lysiphlebus fabarum (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Aphidiinae) have the potential to be used as biological control agents against at least one of these species of aphids. As a first step prior to the implementation of a biological control program, our aim was to understand the host selection behaviour of the parasitoids, particularly when both aphids are present. We recorded the host acceptance (number of insertions of the ovipositor / number of antennal contacts), suitability (number of mummies / the number of insertions of the ovipositor) and emergence (number of adults emerging from mummies) of these three aphid parasitoids when parasitizing the two aphids. We also analyzed the effect of the host plant on the host preference of the parasitoid. Females of each parasitoid species (n = 15) were exposed to 20 aphids of A. fabae or M. persicae, or a mixture of these two species of aphids, for 15 min, on a leaf disc of each of the two host plants, sugar beet and bean. Higher host acceptance and suitability were recorded for A. colemani attacking both species of aphid: A. fabae (43 and 46%) and M. persicae (43 and 46%) on beet and bean plants respectively, compared to L. testaceipes and L. fabarum. L. testaceipes and L. fabarum showed a clear preference for A. fabae. L. fabarum accepted M. persicae on both plants only when it was mixed with A. fabae, probably due to a confusion effect. We found that the host plant played a significant role in host acceptance, host suitability. We conclude that A. colemani is the better of the three parasitoids studied for the biological control in bean, and particularly, sugar beet crops.

The jewel beetle genus Agrilus (Buprestidae), with approximately 2880 recognized species, is taxonomically challenging due to the great similarity of species. An example of taxonomic ambiguity is the Agrilus viridis species group, particularly the viridis complex that comprises many varieties differing both ecologically and morphologically. The status of these varieties has remained largely unresolved and no consensus exists on their status. We used geometric morphometrics in combination with the DNA barcode marker sequence in order to evaluate the possible distinction among populations of A. viridis feeding on Alnus, Betula and a variety of Salix species in Finland. We found that morphology supports the existence of two species, one feeding on Betula and Alnus, the other feeding on Salix. The findings based on DNA barcodes are more complex, suggesting possible introgression events in the species' history. Our results suggest that the Betula/Alnus and Salix feeding forms of A. viridis represent distinct species that have, while maintaining their morphological integrity, probably experienced repeated hybridization events in the past. DNA barcoding provides valuable additional information for taxonomic studies based on careful morphological study and information on their ecology, but drawing taxonomic conclusions from barcode data alone can lead to considerable confusion.

Identifying the plants aphids have fed on can increase our understanding of their roles in food webs, and help in improving management and implementation control strategies in agricultural systems. Field sampling and laboratory experiments were carried out to determine the stable isotope ratios of carbon (δ¹³C) and nitrogen (δ¹⁵ N) in three different varieties of cotton and the aphids (Aphis gossypii) that fed on these varieties. The results were used to test the hypothesis that stable isotope signatures of aphids that have fed on different varieties of cotton differ. Two-dimensional plots of stable isotope signatures for aphids and the cotton varieties they fed on displayed a non-overlapping pattern, indicating that stable isotope signatures of the three cotton varieties and the aphids that fed on them differed. The results indicate that stable isotope analysis can potentially be used to identify aphids that have fed on different varieties of cotton. When the stable isotope signatures of diets clearly differ then it is highly likely the consumers will be distinguishable.

Large, ball rolling dung beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae) are competitively dominant and can strongly influence community succession in dung pads. Ball production by Scarabaeus sacer Linnaeus was recorded in the Kizilirmak Delta on the Black Sea coast of Turkey by using artificial dung pads from 125 g to 2,000 g. Utilisation of pads across the 16-fold range of pad sizes demonstrated behavioural variation that may reduce intraspecies competition. Ball production was highly concentrated, with 66 balls (61%) produced from 8 pads of the 3 largest pad sizes, which may be related to chemical attraction between males and females. Ball size increased with increasing pad size (P < 0.05) but the number of balls produced per 100 g of dung decreased with increasing pad size (P < 0.01). Pad size for maximum ball production and ball size were 1,371 g and 1,260 g, respectively. The highest and lowest percentage of dung used for ball production was 43% of 125 g pads and 13% of 2,000 g pads, respectively. Ball production and time of day were significantly related (P < 0.01); S. sacer was almost exclusively nocturnal, with 59% of all balls produced between 21.00 and 22.00. This optimum period for ball production early in the night may be a compromise between reduced risk of predation and the increased energy costs of ball production as the temperature falls.

Aphid honeydew is one of the main energy sources for various ants in the temperate zone, nevertheless relatively little is known about the organization of the work of honeydew foragers (aphid milkers). This study focuses on the honeydew collecting strategies used by different ants in steppe and forest multi-species communities in Western Siberia. The behaviour of marked foragers of 12 species (Formica - 7, Lasius - 2, Camponotus - 1, Myrmica - 2) was recorded. Depending on the degree of the aphid milker specialization and degree of protection of the aphids five honeydew collecting strategies of various complexity were distinguished: unspecialized foragers in (I) "unprotected" aphid colonies (attended by ants < 60% of time) and (II) "protected" colonies (attended > 95% of time); (III) low "professional" specialization (ants "on duty" constantly attending aphid colonies); (IV) medium and (V) high "professional" specialization (clear division of tasks: honeydew collecting by "shepherds" and protection of trophobionts by "guards"; and honeydew transportation by "transporters" in V). Task specialization of the honeydew foragers is facultative: different ant taxa demonstrate a certain range of the honeydew collecting strategies of different complexities (Formica - I-V, Lasius - I-II, Camponotus - III, Myrmica - I-II) depending on the needs of their colony. The strategy used by ants did not depend on the species of aphid attended, but is strongly dependent on the species of ant, their colony size, available food resources and seasonality. In summer, the aphid milker specialization becomes more complex as ant colony size increases at both intra- and inter-specific levels and when food is scarce. In autumn Formica s. str. ants, which have the most advanced foraging strategy, adopt a simpler honeydew collecting strategy. Overall, the variety of honeydew foraging strategies seems to reflect the unequal contribution of different ants in forming trophobiotic interactions with aphids.

The majority of the conservation strategies for threatened dragonflies are designed to protect only their aquatic habitats. Sympetrum depressiusculum is a species threatened not only by the destruction of its aquatic habitats but also by its association with a specific terrestrial environment. In this study, we aimed to identify the key elements of the terrestrial environment of adult S. depressiusculum. We used generalized linear mixed models to determine habitat preferences of adults and the particular features of habitat patches, such as vegetation cover, vegetation structure and the availability of potential prey. Our results indicate that S. depressiusculum adults preferred mainly riparian vegetation but beyond ponds they utilized only certain terrestrial habitats (abandoned fields, meadows, forest clearings). Adults responded positively to habitat patches with a high cover of vegetation and suitable vegetation structure. Adult abundance was affected also by the distance of patches from the natal site. In an agricultural landscape, the availability of such habitat patches may be limited and could influence the abundance and distribution of this species. We suggest that conservation efforts for this species should not only focus on the larval environment but also include suitable surrounding terrestrial habitats. Effective management around natal sites should concentrate on maintaining a heterogeneous landscape, which is extensively managed (e.g. leaving several fields fallow, maintaining managed hay meadows).

Traps baited with plant volatiles and/or bark beetle pheromones have been used to survey for exotic and potentially invasive bark and wood-boring beetles in North America since the mid-1990s. Recent discoveries of sex and aggregation pheromones in the Cerambycidae offer means of improving detection rates of longhorn beetles, but little is known of their effects on detection of bark and ambrosia beetles in the subfamily Scolytinae. Our objectives were to determine the efficacy of host volatile trap lures for survey and detection of Scolytinae species and whether that efficacy was affected by the addition of longhorn beetle pheromones. More than 12,000 specimens and 36 species of Scolytinae were collected in two field trapping bioassays conducted in the Russian Far East in 2009 and 2010. The lure combination of spruce blend (a blend of racemic α-pinene, (-) β-pinene, (+)-3-carene, (+)-limonene, and α-terpinolene) and ethanol significantly increased detection rates and mean catches of Hylastes brunneus Erichson, Hylastes obscurus Chapuis, Ips typographus (L.), and Dryocoetes striatus Eggers compared with unbaited traps. The addition of the longhorn beetle pheromones, E-fuscumol, or E-fuscumol acetate, to traps baited with spruce blend and ethanol, slightly reduced mean catches of D. striatus but otherwise did not affect catch of any Scolytine species. Baiting traps with ethanol significantly increased mean catches of Anisandrus apicalis (Blandford), Anisandrus dispar (Fabr.), Anisandrus maiche (Kurenzov), Xyleborinus attenuatus (Blandford), Xyleborinus saxesenii (Ratzeburg), Xylosandrus germanus (Blandford), Scolytoplatypus tycon Blandford, and Trypodendron lineatum (Olivier). By themselves, the longhorn beetle pheromones, racemic hydroxyhexan-2-one and racemic hydroxyoctan-2-one, were not attractive to any Scolytine species. However, when added to ethanol-baited traps, hydroxyhexan-2-one lures significantly increased mean catch of S. tycon, hydroxyoctan-2-one lures significantly reduced mean catches of A. maiche and X. attenuatus, and lures of either hydroxyketone significantly reduced mean catch of T. lineatum. The lure treatments that detected the greatest number of species per sampling effort were spruce blend plus ethanol in 2009 (16 Scolytinae species and 13 species of Cerambycidae combined in an eight-trap sample) and hydroxyhexan-2-one plus ethanol in 2010 (20 Scolytinae species and 7 species of Cerambycidae combined in an eight-trap sample). Species accumulation curves did not reach an asymptote for any lure treatment, indicating that many species would go undetected in samples of 8-9 traps per site.

In a recent 3-gene phylogeny of the trichopteran subfamily Drusinae Banks 1916, molecular data clearly correlated with the morphology and feeding ecology of larvae. The largest of three main groups, the Drusinae grazer clade, exhibits an unusual larval feeding ecology for Limnephilidae, and is the most diverse group. In this paper we describe four previously unknown Drusinae larvae included in this clade: Drusus balcanicus Kumanski, 1973 (micro-endemic to Eastern Balkans), Drusus botosaneanui Kumanski, 1968 (Dinaric Western Balkans, Hellenic and Eastern Balkan, Asia Minor), Drusus serbicus Marinković-Gospodnetić, 1971 (micro-endemic to Dinaric Western Balkans), and Drusus tenellus (Klapálek, 1898) (Carpathians, Dinaric Eastern Balkans). Characteristically, the larvae of these species have toothless mandibles typical of the Drusinae grazer clade. Larvae and adults were unambiguously associated using a phylogenetic analysis based on two mitochondrial [mtCOI, mtLSU (=16S) rDNA] and two nuclear genes (nuWG, nuCAD). In addition, information on the morphology of the larvae is given and the diagnostic features necessary for identification are illustrated.

Sand-dwelling wormlion and antlion larvae are predators with a highly specialized hunting strategy, which either construct efficient pitfall traps or bury themselves in the sand ambushing prey on the surface. We studied the role substrate particle size plays in these specialized predators. Working with thirteen species of antlions and one species of wormlion, we quantified the substrate particle size in which the species were naturally found. Based on these particle sizes, four substrate types were established: fine substrates, fine to medium substrates, medium substrates, and coarse substrates. Larvae preferring the fine substrates were the wormlion Lampromyia and the antlion Myrmeleon hyalinus originating from desert habitats. Larvae preferring fine to medium and medium substrates belonged to antlion genera Cueta, Euroleon, Myrmeleon, Nophis and Synclisis and antlion larvae preferring coarse substrates were in the genera Distoleon and Neuroleon. In addition to analyzing naturally-occurring substrate, we hypothesized that these insect larvae will prefer the substrate type that they are found in. Specifically, we tested substrate preference in a choice experiment for four species of antlions. This was then compared to the substrate that the larvae were naturally found in. Larvae of the four antlion species were allowed to choose among eight substrates differing according to their particle size. Our findings show that the majority of M. hyalinus larvae built pits in the finest sand fraction, and the majority of N. microstenus larvae were found in a coarser fraction. The other two species, M. immaculatus and E. nostras, constructed majority of their pits in a medium sand fraction. These results support the hypothesis that neuropteran larvae prefer specific substrates for pitbuilding or ambushing prey, and that this - in combination with other abiotic and biotic factors - may drive selection of appropriate habitats.

Currently the introduction and spread of invasive species is an issue of great concern. To effectively manage this problem it is essential to know what constitute invasion hotspots. In this respect, the role of urban green areas in the conservation of biodiversity is a controversial matter. These areas may either favour colonization by alien species or shelter species of high conservation value. We evaluated the influence of location (island, coastal or inland) on the exotic and native ant fauna recorded in 27 urban green areas in Spain. A forward-stepwise discriminant analysis revealed differences between these locations in terms of the composition of the fauna, with exotic species identified as being the most important discriminating variable. There is a gradient: inland-coastal-island, along which there is significant increase in importance in terms of species richness and abundance of particular exotic species and decrease in the dominance of both common and rare native species. Areas located on the Island were more susceptible to invasion by alien ants. Coastal areas were also more susceptible to invasion than inland areas. These results possibly reflect the greater probability of an invasive species reaching these locations and the milder weather conditions at these sites, which would favour their establishment.

Chyliza vittata is known to utilize leaves, stems and underground parts of several leafy and leafless orchids. Compared to the well-recorded feeding habits of C. vittata in Europe, its feeding habits in Japan are poorly studied. Thus, further records of its host plants and the habits of its larvae in Japan are likely to reveal the similarities and differences in its feeding habits in Europe and Japan. The current study reports C. vittata feeding on the stems of the mycoheterotrophic orchid Yoania japonica in central Japan. This study also showed that in spite of the small size of Yoania its reproductive success is not severely reduced when infested with C. vittata, whereas the robust stems of Gastrodia elata, which is its main host plant in Japan, are thought to be a defence against infestation by C. vittata.