A particular case of the alteration of the organization of a developmental module is presented, viz. mixed gynandromorphism in Creobroter gemmatus, in which a male exhibits the usual fore- and hind wing venation and shape of its sex, but patterns of coloration typical of females. Homologies between corresponding areas of the fore- and hind wings are suggested. "Feminization" is defined as the occurrence of traits typical of the female phenotype in a male, and is suggested as a plausible way in which insect wing morphology may be transformed.

A new genus, Trurlia Jałoszyński, in the tribe Cephenniini (Scydmaenidae: Scydmaeninae) is described. The type species is T. insana sp. n. from Sumatra; females of an undescribed species are also reported to occur in W Malaysia. Trurlia most closely resembles Cephennomicrus Reitter, but it is the first genus of the Scydmaenidae with entirely fused antennomeres 10 and 11, forming a large, oval, abruptly separated club. Based on a disarticulated female of Trurlia sp., the detailed morphology of the new genus is described and illustrated, and possible relationships with other genera of the tribe are discussed. Comments on evolution, polarity of characters and feeding strategy of the Cephenniini are included.

This paper reports the collecting of adult beetles and third-instar larvae of Coelocorynus desfontainei Antoine, 1999 in Cameroon and provides new data on the biology of this high-altitude Afromontane genus. It also presents the first diagnosis of this genus based on larval characters and examination of its systematic position in a phylogenetic context using 78 parsimony informative larval and adult characters. Based on the results of our analysis we (1) support the hypothesis that the tribe Trichiini is paraphyletic with respect to both Valgini and the rest of the Cetoniinae, and (2) propose that the Trichiini subtribe Cryptodontina, represented by Coelocorynus, is a sister group of the Valgini: Valgina, represented by Valgus. The larvae-only analyses were about twofold better than the adults-only analyses in providing a phylogenetic resolution consistent with the larvae + adults analyses. Only one of the ten clades was consistently supported by the analyses of both the larval and adult datasets, while the remaining nine were invariably strongly supported by one but not the other analysis, thus highlighting the importance of employing different data sources.

The role of predators and parasitoids in the regulation of insect populations is widely reported in the context of both pest and non-pest insects. However, this is not the case for pathogens (entomopathogens). Indeed, most studies on insect life history refer only to predators and parasitoids when considering natural enemy guilds, even though naturally occurring entomopathogens are undoubtedly more diverse and widespread. This is certainly the case with the Coccinellidae; the natural enemies of coccinellids have been the subject of a number of review articles but pathogens receive only brief mention. In this review we attempt to address the balance and consider the interactions of natural populations of Coccinellidae with entomopathogenic fungi. Most research on entomopathogens and Coccinellidae focuses on the non-target impact of biorational insecticides against coccinellids and the impact of fungal infections upon aggregations of overwintering coccinellids; with the former overwhelmingly dominating the literature. Given the prominence of coccinellids in classical and conservation biological control, it is surprising that studies have not measured the natural impact of pathogenic fungi upon introduced species or natural populations of Coccinellidae, as has been done with numerous insect pest species. Here we review the literature on the intriguing interactions between coccinellids and fungal pathogens. We examine the literature on direct infection (sub-lethal and lethal) of coccinellids by pathogenic (Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, Paecilomyces fumosoroseus) or parasitic (Hesperomyces virescens). We also consider the role of intra-guild predation (on the aphid-specific fungus Pandora neoaphidis and Beauveria bassiana) and finally indirect interactions such as coccinellids dispersing P. neoaphidis. We suggest that fungal pathogens are all too often forgotten natural enemies and future research should address the profound absence of knowledge in this field.

Qualitative and quantitative differences in prey are known to affect the life histories of predators. A laboratory study was used to evaluate the suitability of three aphid prey, Aphis gossypii, Aphis craccivora and Lipaphis erysimi, for the ladybird beetle, Anegleis cardoni (Weise). Development was fastest on A. gossypii followed by A. craccivora and L. erysimi. Percentage pupation, immature survival, adult weight and the growth index were all highest when reared on A. gossypii and lowest on L. erysimi. Similarly, oviposition period, lifetime fecundity and egg viability were all highest on a diet of A. gossypii, lowest on L. erysimi and intermediate on A. craccivora. Age-specific fecundity functions were parabolic. Adult longevity, reproductive rate and intrinsic rate of increase were all highest on A. gossypii and lowest on L. erysimi. Life table parameters reflected the good performance on A. gossypii and poor performance on L. erysimi. Estimates of individual fitness values for the adults reared on A. gossypii and A. craccivora were similar and higher than that of adults reared on L. erysimi. Thus, the three species of aphid can all be considered essential prey for A. cardoni.

The effect of multiple matings on the readiness with which mating occurred, fecundity, egg viability and adult longevity in the aphidophagous ladybird beetle, Coelophora saucia (Mulsant) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), was investigated under laboratory conditions. The time to onset of mating after previous pairing was found to decrease with increase in the number of matings. Multiply mated females had a higher fecundity and egg viability than single mated females. The trends in the results were analyzed using both binomial regression and the Gompertz equation. The best fitting curve was that based on the binomial equation, which indicates that 95% of the maximum theoretical fecundity was attained after mating 11 times and 95% of the maximum theoretical egg viability after mating 3 times. Unlike previous studies on ladybirds, a slight but statistically significant increase in female longevity was observed with increase in number of matings indicating that the male ejaculate might provide a supply of nutrients.

Phylogeography, genetic diversity, and demography of central European populations of two flightless xerothermic weevils, Polydrusus inustus and Centricnemus leucogrammus, were studied based on the polymorphism of three mtDNA genes (COII, CytB, and ND1). Results indicate that these xerothermic beetles may have different origins. P. inustus is a recent migrant as the parthenogenetic form has a low level of genetic diversity and lacks a geographic population structure. This is probably a result of a recent (before the end of last glaciation) expansion and/or present dispersal mediated by humans. On the other hand, C. leucogrammus appears to be a relic species as the populations of this species are much more genetically diverse (six distinct clades) and some of the populations are allopatric and others sympatric. They probably diverged and expanded during the last few glaciations. Genetic discontinuities were detected among localities that are now separated by gaps in the distribution. Boundaries (mountains or farmland) separate the populations into three groups: (1) Moravia and Slovakia, (2) the lower Vistula Valley in northern Poland and (3) south-eastern Poland together with western Ukraine. Evidence for recent gene flow was found only among populations from south-eastern Poland and western Ukraine, and between these two groups. One population from northern Poland was surprisingly related to populations in southern Poland, which may be due to extinction of intermediate populations.

An extracellular α-mannosidase with unusual properties was purified from the digestive fluid of oil palm weevil (Rhynchophorus palmarum Linnaeus) larvae using ammonium sulphate saturation, size exclusion and anion-exchange chromatography. The enzyme named RpltM is thermoacidophilic, thermostable and behaves like lysosomal α-mannosidase (EC 3.2.1.24). The molecular weight, K_m value, optimum reaction temperature and pH are 108-112 kDa, 0.36 mM, 65°C and 4.5, respectively. Zn²⁺ enhanced whereas Cu²⁺, Sodium dodecyl sulphate, swainsonine and 1,4-dideoxy-1,4-iminomannitol strongly inhibited its hydrolytic activity. The enzyme was stable for 25 min at 65°C and retained 70% of its initial activity after 60 min. At 70°C, around 60% of this activity was conserved after 25 min. RpltM retained more than 90% of its activity over a pH range of 4.2 to 5.0 and remained fully active in the presence of detergents such as nonidet P-40, triton X-100, polyoxyethylen-10-oleyl ether (up to 1%, w/v), dithiothreitol and β-mercaptoethanol. The stability under these conditions is also better than that reported for other insect α-mannosidases. Thus, RpltM could be used as an important bioindustrial tool for removing mannose residues from oligosaccharides.

The butterfly Proclossiana eunomia (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) was discovered at a single locality in the Czech Republic in 1963. Until the 1980s, it was known from a restricted area, from which it spontaneously expanded during the 1980s to other localities up to 23 km from the source population. Samples were collected in 2002 from the source and ten other populations, totalling 274 specimens. All samples were analysed by electrophoresis for four polymorphic loci. Mean heterozygosity decreased with distance from the source population; this suggested a process of stepping stone colonization, involving the loss of rare alleles along the way. The populations close to the source population (less then ca. 15 km) retain a similar heterozygosity, whereas populations further away have a much reduced heterozygosity. Such a pattern of genetic differentiation and founder effect within a region is typical of specialized species with relatively low dispersal ability. The high level of genetic polymorphism found in the Šumava populations suggests that populations of this northern species in temperate-zone mountains are not just outposts of otherwise huge northern distribution, but represent genuine phylogeographic refugia. Survival of such species depends on the survival of the source population and of a sufficiently dense network of habitat patches.

We examined oviposition decisions by Hippodamia convergens Guérin in semi-natural arenas in the laboratory. Gravid females were presented individually with an array of four young sorghum plants, Sorghum bicolor, bearing (1) no additional stimulus, (2) an established colony of greenbug, Schizaphis graminum Rondani, (3) residues of conspecific larvae, and (4) greenbugs plus residues of conspecific larvae. Females laid no egg masses on type 3 plants, significantly fewer than expected by chance on type 4 plants, and significantly more on type 1 plants, with type 2 plants receiving expected numbers. Females laid 50% of egg masses on elements of the arena other than the plants, especially the cage screen, suggesting that females sought to distance their eggs farther from larval residues than the spacing of plants in the arena permitted (15 cm). When the experiment was repeated with plants exposed to larvae of Coleomegilla maculata DeGeer, the repellency was weaker. Once again, clean plants were the most preferred and aphids did not increase the acceptability of plants with larval residues. Nevertheless, only 18% of egg masses occurred off the plants and larval residues did not reduce the acceptability of aphid-bearing plants as did conspecific larval residues. Simultaneous choice tests conducted with individual third instars of both species revealed that C. maculata larvae consumed H. convergens eggs as readily as conspecific eggs, but H. convergens larvae preferred conspecific eggs to those of C. maculata. We conclude that H. convergens oviposition decisions are shaped by the risks of both egg cannibalism and predation.

The Central American genus Macrotingis Champion, 1897 was revised and the morphological characters of the species of Macrotingis and those of its sister group Ceratotingis Montemayor, 2008 were subjected to a phylogenetic analysis. A species previously placed in the genus Tigava is now Ceratotingis spatula (Monte, 1945), new combination. Cladistic analysis indicates that both genera are monophyletic and defined the relationships between species. Keys to the species in these genera are provided together with illustrations of their main morphological characters and a map of their distribution in Central America.

Six species are identified in the Iteaphila setosa group [I. arundela sp. n., I. caucasica sp. n., I. italica Loew, 1873, I. kubaniensis sp. n., I. merzi sp. n., I. setosa (Bezzi, 1924)]. This species group is distributed from southern England in the west, through southern Europe and northern Africa, to the Caucasus and Middle Asia (Uzbekistan).

Whereas the classification of plant communities has a long tradition that of animal assemblages remains poorly developed. Here we propose a classification scheme for orthopteran communities based on regional "character species", "differential species" and "attendant species" at different levels of habitat complexity, which is also applicable to other insect groups. In this context there are three main points of special importance: (i) the geographical reference area, (ii) the hierarchical spatial level (e.g. habitat complex, habitat and microhabitat) and (iii) precise constancy criteria for the definition of character species and differential species. We develop this new approach using a study on orthopteran communites of central German semi-dry calcareous grasslands. Within this habitat, we describe seven structural types that are characterized by specific orthopteran communities. For the arrangement of the structural types several environmental parameters (e.g. height and density of vegetation) were collected. Orthopteran densities were sampled at 80 sites using a biocoenometer (box quadrat). Regional character species of semi-dry grasslands include Myrmeleotettix maculatus, Metrioptera brachyptera, Stenobothrus lineatus and Tetrix tenuicornis. Within this habitat, Chorthippus parallelus, Metrioptera roeselii, Omocestus viridulus, Pholidoptera griseoaptera and Tettigonia viridissima were designated as differential species for particular structural types. Furthermore, Tettigonia cantans and Tettigonia viridissima act as altitudinal differential species. Chorthippus biguttulus is the only attendant species with high constancy values in all structural types. This classification is a powerful tool for arthropod conservation, since it allows one to determine community completeness of very important and threatened habitats, like semi-dry calcareous grasslands.

The organization and development of ovaries in representatives of two families (Putoidae and Monophlebidae) of scale insects are described. Developing ovaries of Puto albicans McKenzie, 1967 and Crypticerya morrilli (Cockerell, 1914) consist of numerous clusters of cystocytes that are arranged in the form of rosettes. At the end of the last nymphal instar these clusters start to protrude from the interior of the ovary into the body cavity and the ovarioles begin to be formed. The ovary of a young female is composed of about 200 spherical telotrophic ovarioles devoid of terminal filaments. The ovarioles of C. morrilli contain 8 germ cells (7 trophocytes and a single oocyte). From 25 to 45 germ cells (23-43 trophocytes and 2 or 3 oocytes) occur in the ovarioles of P. albicans. An ovariole of an adult female is subdivided into a trophic chamber (tropharium), vitellarium and ovariolar stalk (pedicel). At each stage of development, the ovaries are accompanied by large cells (termed bacteriocytes) that contain endosymbiotic microorganisms. The organization of the ovary in P. albicans is more similar to that in archaeococcoid scale insects than in neococcoid taxa. In contrast, the number of germ cells per ovariole in C. morrilli is not typical of other archaeococcoids, but resembles the derived condition seen in other iceryine taxa. The classification and phylogeny of scale insects are discussed in the light of these results.

Males of the small copper butterfly, Lycaena phlaeas daimio, exhibit two mate-locating tactics: patrolling and perching. Field investigations were conducted to determine the biotic and abiotic factors affecting the mate-locating behaviour of male L. phlaeas. Patrolling was often observed when light intensity was high. Perching was performed throughout the day regardless of environmental conditions, but the chasing of passing insects increased at high light intensities. The activity patterns of the males were not affected by those of the females. The thoracic temperatures of patrolling males were lower than those of perching males under cool conditions, suggesting that patrolling males lose heat more easily. In contrast, perching males may more easily regulate their body temperature to a suitable level as they fly for shorter periods and can bask while waiting for mates. These results highlight several reasons (i.e., heat loss, energetic costs) why males patrol when weather conditions are favourable.

Papilionid butterflies of the tribe Troidini are specialists on plants of the family Aristolochiaceae. The role of plant volatiles in host recognition by adult and larval stages of these insects remains unknown. We used Battus polydamas archidamas (Papilionidae: Troidini) and its host-plant, Aristolochia chilensis (Aristolochiaceae), to study: (i) the olfactory and electrophysiological responses of adults to headspace volatiles of the host-plant, (ii) the chemical composition of the headspace volatiles of the host-plant, (iii) the patterns of aggregation of larvae in the field in order to ascertain the time when they leave the plant where the eggs were laid, and (iv) the olfactory responses of solitary-feeding fourth-instar larvae to headspace volatiles of the host-plant. Larvae left their initial host-plant during the third or fourth instar. Host-plant headspace volatiles attracted fourth-instar larvae as well as adults; adult females were more responsive than males. Taken together, these results reveal changes in the responsiveness to host-plant volatiles during development, and provide an insight into the host-plant specialization of this butterfly.

When estimating the species richness of a taxonomic group in a specific area, the choice of the trapping method is extremely important. In this study the effectiveness of Malaise and Moericke yellow pan traps for collecting flying Ichneumonidae was compared. Samples were collected in 5 habitats in the Cabañeros National Park: pastureland, shrubland and three types of woodland. Two traps of each type were placed in each habitat, and samples collected over a period of one year, replacing the pots every 20 days. The study focused on eleven subfamilies of Ichneumonidae. The results showed that the composition of the Ichneumonidae in the catches of the two traps differed. Malaise traps were more effective in collecting Ichneumonidae in all habitats, but especially in the ash woodland. Moericke traps yielded the most abundant catches in open areas with a wider field of vision. The subfamily Orthocentrinae occurred more frequently in the Moericke yellow traps. The Ichneumonidae caught by both trapping methods differed, especially in the relative abundance of the most common species. When compiling an inventory of species it is extremely important to use a combination of both trapping methods.

Viticulture is one of the most intensively managed agricultural ecosystems in Europe. Therefore, the conservation problems of vineyards and the ecological benefits of increasing the amount of fallow land are addressed using butterflies as a model group. We established 43 transects, each 100 m long, in a vineyard region in the vicinity of Trier (Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany) and recorded the butterflies observed along these transects on 20 occasions from late May to early August 2003. Transects crossed vineyards, fallow land and transitional areas of land. 4041 individuals of 34 species showed the typical pattern of relative abundance with few common and many relatively rare species. Fallow land had more individuals and species and a higher Shannon species diversity index than vineyards. Community evenness and average butterfly dispersal ability were highest in the vineyards. Principal Factor Analyses and UPGMA cluster analysis distinguished between fallow land and vineyards. The difference between early meadow and late forest fallow land areas was not strong, but the former tended to have a higher diversity than the latter. Vineyards thus might act as a sink for butterflies. Therefore, a clear separation between vineyards and fallow land is best for nature conservation. As young fallow land tends to have a higher diversity than older fallow land in this study, it is likely that the conservation value of vineyards for butterflies could be increased by active management of fallow land areas.

In Mormidea paupercula (n = 6 + XY in males), the presence of a CMA₃-bright band in the telomeric regions on both sex chromosomes allowed the analysis of the kinetic activity of the sex univalents and XY pseudobivalent at the first and second meiotic divisions, respectively. The separation of the sister chromatids of the sex chromosomes occurs from a pair of telomeric regions (with or without a band), with opposite telomeric regions remaining associated with each other at meiosis I; the behaviour of both sex chromosomes differs, on the X chromosome both telomeric regions are similarly active, while on the Y chromosome the telomeric region without a band is more frequently active. At the second division, the most frequent associations in the pseudobivalent occur between the telomeric regions of both sex chromosomes with bands or without bands. Therefore, in both meiotic divisions, the same telomeric region on the sex chromosomes could lead the migration, in contrast to that observed usually in autosomal bivalents. These results provide evidence that the sex chromosomes of Heteroptera show more than one pattern of attachment to the spindle.

At emergence females of Trichogramma had a lot of mature eggs in their ovaries, but some delayed parasitization or refused to parasitize a laboratory host. The effect of constant and alternating temperatures on the percentage of Trichogramma buesi females parasitizing Sitotroga cerealella eggs and the duration of the pre-parasitization period were investigated. The temperature dependencies of the rate of preimaginal development, pre-emergence survival, number of eggs laid daily, and total lifetime fecundity were also determined. As the temperature was increased from 12 to 35°C, the median pre-oviposition period decreased from 5 days to 3 h, with maximum values of 24 and 1.5 days, respectively. The rate of induction of parasitization (reciprocal of duration of the pre-parasitization period of the females that parasitized) increased with temperature like the rate of preimaginal development and average number of eggs laid daily by a parasitizing female. Total cumulative percentage of parasitizing females reached a maximum (ca 60%) at temperatures of 25-30°C, while at 12 and 35°C, respectively, 25 and 50% of females parasitized the S. cerealella eggs. Average lifetime fecundity and pre-emergence survival showed a similar dependence on temperature. The influence of the thermorhythm (25°C for 4 h and 15°C for 20 h) was strongly dependent on its position within the photoperiod. When thermophase coincided with photophase, the percentage of females that parasitized was close to that recorded at a constant temperature of 25°C. But when the high temperature pulse coincided with the dark period, the percentage of parasitizing females was the same as at 15°C. Thus, the temperature dependence of ethogenesis (supposedly, an increase in motivation to parasitize or search for a host) in Trichogramma females was similar to that of morphogenesis, although the reaction to alternating temperatures may have been complicated by interaction with the light : dark regime.

While the study of colour patterns is a traditional subject of evolutionary ecology, there are various hypotheses which suffer from a lack of experimental evidence. One intriguing possibility is a trade-off between warning efficiency and detectability. After a certain size threshold, the detrimental effect of increased detectability can outweigh the benefits of warning colouration. One may thus expect corresponding patterns at the level of ontogenetic development: as juveniles grow, they should first acquire warning colouration, and then lose it again. We analysed this possibility in Orgyia antiqua, a moth species with hairy larvae which are polyphenic with respect to the intensity of warning colouration. We detected a regular change in colour patterns through larval life. Indeed, the larvae tend to display warning colouration at intermediate sizes while dull colours dominate in fully grown larvae. In aviary experiments, we confirmed that the colourful phenotype is the one that causes the strongest aversion in birds. Nevertheless, the effect was rather weak and most of the larvae were still eventually consumed when found. Unexpectedly, for human subjects, the warningly coloured larvae were harder, and not easier to find among natural vegetation, most likely due to the disruptive effect of the aposematic colour pattern. Importantly, the trend was reversed in the largest size class, suggesting that the disruptive colouration loses its advantage as the larva grows. This is consistent with the actual patterns of size-dependence of colouration. We present evidence against an alternative explanation which relates size-related change in colouration to behavioural changes prior to pupation. We conclude that even if the efficiency of the warning effect plays a role in determining the size-dependence of colouration, the pattern may be largely explained by the effects of size-dependent detectability alone.

The bee family Melittidae (Hymenoptera: Apoidea) includes 14 genera. Most have been reviewed but not the small African genus Capicola. The present work aims to fill this gap. Based on the revision of the type material and 1272 additional specimens, we provide a comprehensive synonymic and annotated catalogue of the 12 Capicola species sensu Michener (1981). Lectotypes are designated for the previously established species Capicola braunsiana (= C. obscura syn. n.), C. cinctiventris, C. femorata, C. flavitarsis and C. rufiventris. Moreover, C. danforthi sp. n., C. flavicara sp. n., C. gessorum sp. n., C. micheneri sp. n., and C. richtersveldensis sp. n., are newly described, as well as the previously unknown female of C. nanula, male of C. nigerrima and male of C. rhodostoma. New synonymies are proposed for C. braunsiana (= C. obscura) and C. flavitarsis (= C. cinctiventris). An original dataset of 20 morphological characters is used for the inference of the 12 species' phylogenetic relationship. A key to species is provided. In addition, the ranges of the 12 taxa are mapped and discussed. This paper contributes to a global revision of the Melittidae.

Fifteen years after the publication of the first genomic sequence of a phytophagous beetle, we review here the wealth of genetic and genomic information generated so far for the species-rich beetle superfamilies Chrysomeloidea (longhorn, seed and leaf beetles) and Curculionoidea (weevils and bark beetles). In this review we briefly describe the most common methods used to investigate the beetle genomes and also compile the nucleotide sequence information stored in public gene databases until December 2004. The motivations and relevance of these research initiatives are described in certain detail, distinguishing among structural and population studies, phylogenetic research, the study of genes involved in development and diapause, energetic metabolism, vegetal tissue digestion, and genes for insect resistance and defence.

Discontinuous respiration in diapausing pupae of Cecropia silkworms was monitored by means of several electronic methods, including recording changes in haemocoelic pressure, monitoring respiratory movements by strain-gauge sensors and nanorespirographic recording of O₂ consumption and CO₂ output. It appears that, in contrast to previous concepts of stereotypic discontinuous respiration cycles (DGC) driven by accumulation of gaseous CO₂ in the body, the new results indicate that CO₂ remains dissolved in liquid carbonate buffers during interburst periods. In other words, there is no accumulation of gaseous CO₂ within the air filled tracheal space between the bursts. The bursts of CO₂ are caused by homeostatically regulated enzymatic hydration by carbonic anhydrase of metabolically produced carbonic acid. The chemically produced gaseous CO₂ was exhaled mainly by a bulk outflow through selectively opened or pulsating spiracles. The output of CO₂ was enhanced by actively regulated, unidirectional ventilation. The deep depressions in haemocoelic pressure, caused by permanent closure of all spiracular valves for long periods, appeared to be a specific feature of diapausing saturniid pupae. Physiologically, it has circulatory, not respiratory functions. The original definition of spiracular "fluttering" resulted from a misinterpretation of previously unknown extracardiac pulsations in haemocoelic pressure. The coordinated pulsation of the spiracular valves with extracardiac pulsations produce a very efficient, unidirectional ventilation of the whole tracheal system. According to the new results, the discontinuous respiration cycles of diapausing Cecropia pupae can be briefly described as follows: (1) Spiracular valves are kept permanently closed during the periods of deep depressions, they remain closed for some 99% of the time with occasional snap opening (passive inspirations) during prolonged interburst periods and more than 50% closed during the bursts; (2) During the long interburst periods, CO₂ is retained in liquid carbonate buffers, while the relatively high (after the burst) or low (toward the next burst) rate of O₂ consumption creates an internal vacuum, which is homeostatically compensated for by the snap-opening of one or just a few spiracular valves (passive suction inspirations); (3) The CO₂ gas, produced enzymatically by carbonic anhydrase, enters the air filled tracheal system and leaves the body by diffusion, a bulk outflow, or actively regulated unidirectional ventilation ("fluttering" spiracles). The selective advantage of this actively regulated respiratory system for water retention in pupae is discussed.

Five polymorphic microsatellite loci of the arboreal ant Allomerus decemarticulatus (Myrmicinae) were isolated and characterized. The amplification and polymorphism of seven additional microsatellite loci, previously developed for the ant species A. octoarticulatus and Wasmannia auropunctata, were also tested and the amplification conditions necessary for genotyping the complete set of 12 multiplexed markers in A. decemarticulatus determined. The number of alleles per locus ranged from three to 15 and observed heterozygosity varied from 0.09 to 0.95. Cross-species amplification of these loci was also successfully achieved in additional species of the same ant subfamily, Myrmicinae. This set of microsatellite markers will be used in studies on the mating system and population genetic structure of Myrmicinae in general and A. decemarticulatus in particular.

Throughout most of its range the Palaearctic moth Hepialus humuli shows a striking sexual dimorphism correlated with a dimorphism in wing scale ultrastructure. Male uppersides are uniformly silvery white, due to light reflection from unpigmented scales with an elaborate internal cuticular meshwork; the conspicuous wings are visual cues for females when lekking males swarm at dusk. Female uppersides have a yellow-and-orange pigment pattern, and commonplace scale morphology. Male specimens from the Shetland and Faroe Islands populations are polymorphic, with wing uppersides ranging from the typical uniform white to being patterned much as in females, or even more melanic; forewing length is slightly greater in the darker and patterned male morphs. Male wing-scale polymorphism is only modest: even the superficially most female-like specimens are overall similar to typical males with respect to important details of scale structure. The polymorphic N. Atlantic forms are likely derived from dimorphic ancestors of the continental type. The principal selective force favouring male darkening in these insular populations is most probably a locally strong predation by visual hunters (primarily gulls and terns) on the lekking moths, combined with a lessened importance of the colour-related conspicuousness of males for female mate-searching at the high ambient light level at the swarming time at these high latitudes. This assumption is supported by the finding of a higher abundance of cryptic males (and perhaps by the smaller average size of the non-cryptic male morphs) in sites with intense bird predation.

The ground plan and comparative morphology of the nymphal head of Membracoidea are presented with particular emphasis on the position of the clypeus, frons, epistomal suture, and ecdysial line. Differences in interpretation of the head structures in Auchenorrhyncha are discussed. Membracoidea head may vary more extensively than heads in any other group of insects. It is often modified by the development of an anterior carina, which apparently was gained and lost multiple times within Membracoidea. The main modifications of the head of Membracoidea and comparison of those changes with the head of other superfamilies of Auchenorrhyncha are described.

To conserve the predators and parasitoids of agricultural pests it is necessary to understand their population structure in a mixed landscape, and to consider the spatial and temporal changes in their distribution and movement of adults and larvae. We studied the distribution and movement of the ground beetle Carabus yaconinus (Coleoptera: Carabidae), which inhabits farmland-woodland landscapes. We placed a large number of pitfall traps along the border between a wood and an orchard and counted the number of C. yaconinus adults and larvae caught in the traps from 13 April to 28 June 2005. Some of the adults were marked before they were released. Adults were most abundant at the edge of the wood and the number caught gradually decreased when entering into the wood. In contrast, larvae were only found in the interior of the wood, although they moved closer to the edge of the wood as they matured. Adult females were collected within the wood and neighbouring orchards more frequently than adult males. It is likely that females enter woodlands in search of oviposition sites and leave woodlands in search of high-protein food sources to support reproduction. For sustaining populations of C. yaconinus it is necessary to have woodlands of at least 60 m in width adjacent to farmland. It is possible to design an appropriate landscape if the habitat requirements of the predatory arthropods are well understood.

Overlapping measurements in the length of the genitalia of Leptidea sinapis/reali collected in Slovenia triggered an investigation of a possible natural hybridization between these two well known sibling species of butterflies. Random polymorphic DNA (RAPD) was used to generate species specific markers and sequences of the cytochrome oxidase subunit one gene for determination of the progeny. RAPD's clustering and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) phylogeny were congruent with the taxonomic placement of specimens of both species, but slightly incongruent with the results of the analysis of genital morphology. Two specimens with L. reali genitalia measurements, but genetically belonging to L. sinapis, had species specific RAPD markers of both species indicating probable hybrid origin. All the specimens with genitalia of intermediate length were also genetically assigned to L. sinapis indicating a possible one way introgression as predicted from their genitalia morphology. Leptidea sinapis was found predominantly in xerothermic habitats in Slovenia, whereas L. reali was more of a generalist except in the sub-Mediterranean region where it is limited to humid meadows.

In this second part of the revision of Afrotropical Afrocrania Hincks, 1949 (= Pseudocrania Weise, 1892, not Pseudocrania MCoy, 1851), a group of Galerucinae restricted to Africa, additional material is revised. Herein, species in which the males lack deep head cavities, partly horned antennomeres, or extended elytral extrusions, but usually have small post-scutellar extrusions or depressions, are considered. Material of Afrocrania pauli (Weise, 1903), comb. n. (= Candezea pauli Weise, 1903), and A. famularis (Weise, 1904), comb. n. (= Monolepta famularis Weise, 1904; = Candezea atripennis Laboissière, 1931, syn. n.) is studied. Lectotypes are designated for A. pauli, A. famularis and C. atripennis. Six new species, A. aequatoriana sp. n., A. minima sp. n., A. nigra sp. n., A. occidentalis sp. n., A. pallida sp. n. and A. weisei sp. n. are described. Distribution patterns are mapped. Together with the already revised species there are 16 valid Afrocrania species are hitherto known. Its phylogenetic position within the Galerucinae is discussed, identification keys to males and females for all known taxa are presented.