The effects of the larval tracks of Episyrphus balteatus DeGeer (Diptera: Syrphidae) and Harmonia axyridis Pallas (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) on the egg laying behavior of females of the predatory hoverfly E. balteatus were investigated in two-choice experiments. The oviposition response of H. axyridis to larval tracks of E. balteatus was also tested in one-choice experiments. Gravid E. balteatus females laid significantly fewer eggs on leaf discs with aphids and contaminated with tracks of conspecific or heterospecific larvae than on control leaf discs. H. axyridis females laid similar numbers of eggs in Petri dishes with aphids and contaminated with the tracks of E. balteatus larvae as in control Petri dishes. This indicates that E. balteatus females lay fewer eggs at sites where there are conspecific and heterospecific larval tracks, whereas the tracks of the syrphid larvae did not deter H. axyridis females from laying eggs.

Pitfall traps are widely used in terrestrial ecology to capture ground-dwelling arthropods. In order to determine the effect of covers placed over pitfall traps on their efficiency at capturing of spiders, carabid beetles and ants, four types of pitfall trap were sunk into the ground at dry grassland sites: three pitfall traps were not covered, three were covered with white, three with green and three with black plastic covers. The total catch was 9,364 spiders, 4,352 carabid beetles and 4,157 ants. The distribution of species of spiders and carabid beetles, and the total catch of spiders, carabid beetles and ants did not differ significantly among the four types of trap. Therefore, covers do not appear to affect the capture efficiency of pitfall traps.

Variation of 15 nuclear allozyme genes and a 708 bp fragment of DNA sequence of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene were surveyed in a population of a hoverfly species, Merodon desuturinus Vujić, Šimić & Radenković, 1995 (Diptera, Syrphidae), endemic to the Balkan Peninsula. Based on phylogeography and taxonomy, Merodon desuturinus is of special interest from a biogeographical and conservation perspective. Characterization and determination of genetic relationships between M. desuturinus and taxa of the M. aureus, M. avidus, and M. ruficornis groups on the Balkan Peninsula were estimated based on molecular markers (allozymes and COI sequences). We observed that the mean number of alleles per allozyme locus was 1.1, frequency of polymorphic loci 0.067, and heterozygotes were absent. Our results showed an extremely low genetic variability in the M. desuturinus population sampled. We suggest that this taxon calls for a conservation management plan, as it is likely a vulnerable and threatened taxon, an endemic, spatially divided species and represents a unique genetic unit on the Balkan Peninsula.

Ants are the most abundant group of soil arthropods in olive groves where they are involved in various trophic relationships of great importance for crops. The system of soil management is one agricultural practice that has a great effect on ants, so the objective of this study was to compare ant populations in organic olive orchards with a ground cover of natural vegetation and others where this natural vegetation is mechanically removed at the beginning of June. Ants were sampled using pitfall traps at 14, 30, 70 and 90 days after the removal of the ground vegetation. Overall, ant biodiversity did not change. However, changes were observed in the abundance of ant species, in particular, in those species that build shallow nests in the soil, both between the rows of trees and under the canopy of olive trees. In contrast, deep nesting species, such as Messor barbarus, were not affected. The response also differed between the various genera: the abundance of Cataglyphis increased, due to there being more of the species C. rosenhaueri, while there was a significant fall in Aphaenogaster, due to the decline in abundance of A. senilis. Thirty days after the removal of vegetation, the response of most of the genera was clearly noticeable, due to the increased activity of workers, and in some cases there were still differences after 90 days.

German cockroaches spend most of the day in aggregations within shelters, which they leave in nocturnal foraging trips; cockroaches are rarely seen outside shelters during daylight hours. However, when population density exceeds shelter availability, diurnal aggregations form in exposed, unsheltered locations. To determine if shelter availability affects fitness of B. germanica, we reared cohorts of nymphs in laboratory arenas with or without shelters, and measured reproduction and longevity of tagged adults. When shelters were available in arenas, nymphs developed faster, adults gained more body mass, and females produced more fertile oothecae than when arenas lacked shelters. Therefore, shelter alone has a significant positive effect on growth and reproduction of B. germanica, and reducing or eliminating shelters should affect population growth of B. germanica in residential and industrial settings.

Some ethological aspects of the interrelations between ants and the larvae of Blasticotoma filiceti Klug, 1834 were investigated in the Altai Republic and Novosibirsk Region in 2006-2008. The interactions of ants with the larvae of this sawfly are determined by the concealed way of life style of B. filiceti. The majority of the ant-sawfly encounters occurred near holes in fern fronds at the moment when larvae excreted liquid or left their tunnels before descending to the soil prior to overwintering. Sawfly larvae visited by more aggressive ants, such as Formica s. str., leave the fern fronds slowly, which enables them to avoid inciting attacks by ants. The behaviour of the ants while collecting the larval excretion is similar to their behaviour at sugar troughs. The organisation of the collecting larval excreta by ants was investigated in detail in the cases of Formica polyctena Förster, 1850 and Myrmica rubra Linnaeus, 1758. The individual fern plants with sawfly larvae are attended by relatively constant groups of foragers in both cases. However, the highly social red wood ants interact with sawfly larvae in a more complex way. While the working groups of M. rubra tending sawfly larvae consist only of non-aggressive "unspecialized" foragers, those of F. polyctena include also a few "on duty" ants that protect the trophobionts, at least from the other ants.

The tarnished plant bug, Lygus lineolaris (Heteroptera: Miridae), is a highly polyphagous pest that feeds on a broad range of economically important crops in North America. Flying L. lineolaris adults can move from crop to crop rapidly and easily. Little is known about the movement of L. lineolaris in or near vineyards. From May to October 2002 and 2003, 39 white sticky traps were positioned inside and at the periphery of a vineyard to study the movements of tarnished plant bug adults. Tarnished plant bug captures were most numerous from the end of July to mid August, with captures of ca. 3000 individuals in one week. During the vegetative season, most individuals were captured flying in and around the vineyard at a height of between 40 and 60 cm. The frequency with which the weeds were mown affected the numbers of adults captured. At the periphery of the vineyard, tarnished plant bug was more abundant near perennial vegetation, which tends to be stable (an apple orchard, a spruce wood), than in the vineyard where agronomic activities changed the availability of food. The tarnished plant bug adults did not hibernate in the vineyard. It is suggested that appropriate weed management will reduce the abundance of tarnished plant bugs in vineyards as it would deprive them of a number of suitable hosts for feeding and oviposition.

Genetic differentiation is a consequence of the combination of drift and restriction in gene flow between populations due to barriers to dispersal, or selection against individuals resulting from inter-population matings. In phytophagous insects, local adaptation to different kinds of host plants can sometimes lead to reproductive isolation and thus to genetic structuring, or even to speciation. Acanthoscelides obtectus Say is a bean bruchid specialized on beans of the Phaseolus vulgaris group, attacking both wild and domesticated forms of P. vulgaris and P. coccineus. This study reveals that the genetic structure of populations of this bruchid is explained mainly by their geographical location and is not related to a particular kind (wild or domesticated) of bean. In contrast, the species of bean might have led, to some extent, to genetic structuring in these bruchids, although our sampling is too limited to address such process unambiguously. If confirmed, it would corroborate preliminary results found for the parasitoid species that attack Acanthoscelides species, which might show a genetic structure depending on the species of host plant.

Under seasonal conditions, Polydesmus angustus individuals born in the first part of the breeding season have a 1-year life cycle and those born later have a 2-year life cycle (cohort-splitting). In this study, 249 juveniles from four early broods (born in mid-July) and four late broods (born in September) were reared under similar laboratory conditions, to test for possible maternal influences on life-cycle duration. Development times of early- and late-born individuals were compared under four combinations of day length and temperature (16 h - 18°C, 16 h - 16°C, 12 h - 18°C and 12 h - 16°C). The results showed that development time varied significantly in response to day length, temperature and sex, but that of individuals in the early and late broods did not differ significantly (mean development times ± SE: 180 ± 6 and 183 ± 8 days, respectively). There were no significant interactions between birth period and other factors, indicating that the effects of day length, temperature and sex on development time were similar in early- and late-born individuals. This indicates that the extended life cycle of millipedes born late in the season is not maternally determined and that cohort-splitting is controlled entirely by the environmental conditions experienced by the offspring during their development. This conclusion is supported by the absence of significant variation in offspring live weight at birth measured at different times in the breeding season. The results are discussed in relation to the bet-hedging theory, which is often put forward to account for cohort-splitting in arthropods. In P. angustus, the results are consistent with either bet-hedging or adaptive plasticity, but further studies are required to decide which interpretation is correct.

Phonochorion Uvarov (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae: Phaneropterinae) is a little known genus consisting of three species: Ph. satunini, Ph. artvinensis and Ph. uvarovi. The objective of this study is to conduct a thorough distributional, taxonomic and systematic revision of the genus Phonochorion using both bioacustic and external morphological characters. Field surveys indicate that the genus is distributed from the Trabzon region of Turkey to the Khulo province of Georgia however the exact limit of the eastern distribution of the genus remains unknown. Phonochorion species occur only on the northern slopes of the East Black Sea and Lesser Caucasus Mountains. The Coruh Valley, which seprates the East Black Sea and Lesser Caucasus Mountain ranges, seems to be an effective physical and climatic barrier and determines the distribution of these species. Ph. uvarovi can clearly be distinguished from Ph. satunini and Ph. artvinensis by the calling songs of males and external morphological characters. Ph. artvinensis and Ph. satunini differ in several taxonomic characters but the males have virtually identical calling songs. From a character evolution perspective, although geographically more distant, Ph. satunini is more closely related to Ph. uvarovi than Ph. artvinensis. Morphological similarities in several characters indicate Phonochorion to be most closely related to Polysarcus zacharovi and the Poecilimon heroicus-group. Within the genus Phonochorion, song structure and morphological characters clearly indicate Ph. uvarovi to be the basal taxon.

The Neochauliodes sundaicus species-group is newly proposed, containing six species and endemic to Indo-Malaysia. All six species are described and illustrated, including two new species: Neochauliodes parvus Liu, Hayashi & Flint, sp. n. and N. peninsularis Liu, Hayashi & Flint, sp. n. Full species status is given to N. maculatus Stitz, 1914, stat. n. and N. borneensis van der Weele, 1909, stat. n. A cladistic analysis is conducted to reconstruct the species level phylogeny of the N. sundaicus group based on the morphological data. Combining the present morphological phylogeny and historical geography of Indo-Malaysia, the origin and speciation of this species-group is briefly discussed.

A study of the insect community inhabiting the wood-decaying bracket fungus, Cryptoporus volvatus was used to test two hypotheses proposed to account for the competitive coexistence of species in insect communities in patchy environments, niche partitioning and spatial mechanisms. A total of 8990 individuals belonging to 17 insect species emerged from 438 sporocarps (patches) collected from the field. Insect species richness increased and then declined with increase in the total insect biomass reared from a sporocarp, suggesting the potential importance of interspecific competition. Successional niche partitioning explained the spatial distribution of the four specialist species. The aggregation model of coexistence satisfactorily explained the stable coexistence of the species. The specialist species displayed higher population persistence than the generalists. Simulation studies suggest that restricted movements of adults could override patch-level larval aggregation. The effect of such restricted movements on stabilizing coexistence in fungus-insect communities has not been previously appreciated. These findings suggest that spatial mechanisms play a crucial role in the competitive coexistence of the species in the mycophagous insect communities inhabiting bracket fungi.

The paired eversible vesicles on the postabdomen of male T. notata are likely to play an important role in intraspecific communication and possibly in the notorious aggregation behaviour of these flies at buildings in autumn. The morphological and histological study of these organs provides new evidence supporting the hypothesis that they are pheromone glands. They also constitute a strong optical signal. A detailed survey of these structures could provide the bases for targeted control methods.

Butterflies of the genus Phengaris have a highly specialised life cycle involving an obligatory relationship with Myrmica ants. A knowledge of the host ant specificity is essential for understanding the relationship between a particular Phengaris species and its hosts and also important for the conservation of these butterflies. Data on host ant specificity were collected in Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Ukraine. Five different Myrmica species were used by P. teleius as hosts (M. scabrinodis, M. rubra, M. ruginodis, M. rugulosa and M. gallienii) and at most localities it was not possible to distinguish a primary host - i.e. several Myrmica species were parasitized to similar extents. Three populations of P. nausithous were found in Poland and Ukraine. In every case, M. rubra was its primary host, although in the Kraków region (Poland) two nests of M. scabrinodis and two of M. ruginodis were infested by this butterfly species. P. alcon in the four populations investigated in Poland and Ukraine invariably only used M. scabrinodis as a host despite the presence of other Myrmica species. These results obtained suggest lack of host specificity in P. teleius and high host specificity in P. nausithous, which mainly uses M. rubra as its host across Europe. Moreover, the three populations of P. alcon investigated seem to be highly specific and use M. scabrinodis as a host, which confirms the high local specialisation of these populations.

Mango orchards in Pakistan are attacked by the scale insect, Drosicha mangiferae (Hemiptera: Monophlebidae), commonly called the "mango mealybug". This insect is univoltine, active from December through May and targets multiple host plants. We used DNA nucleotide sequences to characterize and determine the phylogenetic status of D. mangiferae. Mango mealybugs were collected from several tree species from different localities and patterns of phylogenetic and genetic diversity were examined at both nuclear (18S, ITS1) and mitochondrial (COI) genes. Phylogenetic analysis confirms that the mango mealybug belongs to the family Monophlebidae. Minor genetic differences in both the ITS1 and the COI barcode region were noted among D. mangiferae collected from different geographic localities. These genetic differences revealed the existence of two genotypes of D. mangiferae that are region specific but not host-specific.

This study of the proteins in the silk of the summer and winter cocoons of the horse chestnut leaf miner Cameraria ohridella revealed they can inhibit protease activity. The inhibitory activity of the summer silk was higher against both the fungal proteinase K and bacterial subtilisin than that of the winter silk. Also, the winter silk was more effective in inhibiting proteinase K than subtilisin. Further, it was demonstrated that some of the silk proteins are glycosylated probably by mannose carbohydrates. An electron microscopy study of the cocoons revealed the presence of silk fibres with different diameters in some pupal chambers.

In insects, allometries of exaggerated traits such as horns or mandibles are often considered species specific and constant during a season. However, given that constraints imposed by the advancing season affect the developmental processes of organisms, these allometries may not be fixed, and the switch point between morphs may vary between populations and within populations during a season. The hypothesis of such a seasonal variation in exaggerated traits was tested using the dimorphic males of the beetle Lucanus cervus. The remains of specimens killed by predators were collected along forest tracks from mid May to late August 2008 in a protected lowland forest in northern Italy. The largest beetles were collected in mid May and average size thereafter decreased. Males collected early in the season mostly had large mandibles (i.e. they belonged to the major morph). In contrast, late in the season the probability of finding males with large mandibles was very low. The threshold body size determining morph expression also shifted during the season. Early in the season, the threshold pronotum width for a 50% chance of developing into the major morph was 1.74 cm, whereas later in the season it was 1.90 cm. This shift in the threshold body size was interpreted as the effect of phenotypic plasticity in a population exposed to constraints imposed by the advancing season.

The present study focused on the evolution of the karyotype in 21 taxa of the genus Isophya, which was done by mapping the location on the chromosomes of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) coding genes using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) with an 18S rDNA probe and using silver staining (AgNO₃) to evaluate the activity of major rDNA clusters. Since the chromosome number and sex determination do not vary in this genus, the above markers were used in a detailed comparison of the cytogenetic features of species of Isophya. The species analyzed were placed into three groups based on the location of rDNA on their chromosomes: (1) rDNA-FISH signals only on the two long pairs of autosomes, (2) rDNA-FISH signals on one long and one short pair of autosomes, and (3) rDNA-FISH signals on three to five different sized pairs of autosomes. These groupings partly correspond to the morphological groupings proposed in earlier studies. One long pair of autosomes frequently carried rDNA in all the Isophya species and probably is a plesiomorphic character for these taxa. The cytogenetic mapping revealed great variability among Isophya species in the chromosomal location of major rDNA clusters. Our results suggest that the observed variation in the number of rDNA clusters can be an important species-group specific phylogenetic marker. Analysis of 18S rDNA hybridization signals showed that the evolutionary dynamics of rDNA in this genus is remarkably high and accompanied by changes in the structure of chromosomes bearing rDNA at an inter- and intra-specific level. The telomeric sequence (TTAGG)_n hybridized with the termini of most of chromosomes, however, some chromosome ends lacked signals probably due to a low copy number of telomeric repeats.

In forest ecosystems in the temperate and boreal zones in Europe, red wood ants (RWA, Formica rufa group) have a significant affect as predators and competitors in communities of ground-dwelling arthropods. Therefore, the spatiotemporal distribution and abundance of RWA affect the distribution of many other species. The hypothesis that a reduction in the abundance of RWA in clear-cut areas enables other arthropods to increase in abundance was tested. The study was conducted in NW Poland in 2007 and 2008. A total of 276 1×1 m plots were sampled and 1,696 individuals recorded. The probability of the occurrence of RWA decreased significantly towards the center of clear-cut areas and increased with increasing plant cover. The frequency of Lasius platythorax, Formica fusca and spiders in the plots significantly increased towards the edge of a clear-cut area. Moreover, the occurrence of L. platythorax was negatively associated with the presence of RWA, while that of the Myrmica species was positively associated. The effect of the distance to the edge of a clear-cut area seems to be much more pronounced than the effect of RWA. This suggests that the arthropods studied prefer habitats close to the edge that are utilized by RWA than RWA-free sites located in the centre of clear-cut areas.

The parasitic caterpillars of Maculinea (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) need to be adopted and nursed by ants of the genus Myrmica (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Each Maculinea species is locally associated with one or a few main and often several secondary host species. To determine whether the parasite-host associations bear marks of cophylogenetic constraints, we reconstructed phylogenies of Maculinea and Myrmica using DNA sequence data. We searched for evidence of cospeciation with a tree-independent (ParaFit) and tree-based (TreeFitter) method. This did not reveal any indication of phylogenetic host tracking in Maculinea. This agrees with earlier insights, which emphasise that as most of the potential host ant populations are never infested by Maculinea, the selective pressure of the butterflies on Myrmica is likely to be slight. Each Maculinea species also specialises on one or a few host plant species before adoption by ants. We suggest that Maculinea species have a substantial potential to accommodate evolutionarily to geographically changing ranges of potential Myrmica hosts, available at the oviposition sites of the butterflies. We use recently published evidence on geographically varying host ant species to discuss a suite of plausible scenarios of adaptive shifts to new Myrmica host species.

In central Japan Ganaspis xanthopoda and Asobara japonica commonly parasitize the larvae of frugivorous drosophilids, mainly in montane forests, and urban environments and small groves, respectively. These two parasitoids start reproduction about one month later than their host drosophilids, probably to avoid searching for hosts when host density is low in early spring. It is likely that the local variation in the abundance of these parasitoids and a temporal refuge for their hosts contribute to the persistence of this parasitoid-host community. The forest species, G. xanthopoda, parasitized at least three Drosophila species that are abundant in forests, supporting the hypothesis that parasitoids are better adapted to attack frequently-encountered host species. This parasitoid did not parasitize drosophilid species that are phylogenetically distantly-related to the three host species or less frequent in forests. Benefits of using such species as host would not exceed the costs of evolving virulence to them. Another parasitoid, A. japonica, parasitized various indigenous and exotic drosophilid species including those that it rarely encountered in the field. It is not clear why this species has such a wide host range.

At the south western border of its extensive distribution, the multivoltine large white butterfly, Pieris brassicae L., is exceptional in undergoing summer diapause or aestivation. In all other regions investigated, P. brassicae pupae only hibernate. The transitional zone from non-aestivating to aestivating populations is a geographically stable region south of the Pyrenees. The restriction of this response to this region cannot be accounted for in terms of genetics as aestivation is intermediately inherited, with the heritability (h²) of aestivation in inbreeding lines between 0.35 and 0.77. Two hypotheses are presented to explain why this species does not aestivate in more northern regions. First, aestivation is a behaviour that serves to synchronize generations in areas where this species produces a high number of generations per year. Second, aestivation reduces the incidence of parasitism suffered by the butterfly by desynchronizing its life cycle from that of its main parasitoid, Cotesia glomerata. The two hypotheses are not mutually exclusive and both seem to be adaptive where the species is multivoltine.

Two new body-colour mutations, albinotic (alb) and cream (cr) are isolated and described for the flightless wing-polymorphic bug, Pyrrhocoris apterus (L.). The body colour of alb mutants is white and that of cr mutants either a light cream or creamy yellow. Both the alb and cr mutations most probably inhibit the biosynthesis of the red pigment in epidermal cells that is responsible for the red-coloured body of wild-type bugs. Although sometimes the body colour of younger larval instars of cr mutants is a slightly darker creamy yellow and that of last larval instars of the alb mutants a slightly whiter greyish, there were no other important developmental changes in the body colour of alb and cr homozygous bugs associated with metamorphosis and post-metamorphic aging of adults. Standard genetic analyses showed that both these mutations are inherited as autosomal recessives and exhibit complete penetrance and uniform expression in both sexes. The fertility of the alb and cr homozygous females and fertilization success of the alb and cr homozygous males were substantially lower than those of wild-type bugs.

A new species group and five new species of mites of the genus Pavania Lombardini, 1949 belonging to the family Dolichocybidae (Acari: Heterostigmata) are described from Iran. Pavania gymnopleuri Hajiqanbar & Khaustov sp. n., P. sabzevarensis Hajiqanbar & Khaustov sp. n. and P. onthophagi Hajiqanbar & Khaustov sp. n., represent a new gymnopleuri species group. Two new species are also described in the fusiformis group: P. kamalii Hajiqanbar & Khaustov sp. n. and P. elongata Hajiqanbar & Khaustov sp. n. All new species are associated with scarabaeid and carabid beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae, Carabidae). This is the first record of the family Dolichocybidae from Iran. The leg setation and geographic distribution of all genera of this family are discussed and keys to genera and species of the genus Pavania are provided.

A positive correlation between the parental effort of a male and female should promote stable biparental care. In order to prevent infanticide male and female burying beetles are said to guard against intruders cooperatively and the presence of a male partner is said to increase the probability of successful defence. However, this hypothesis is supported only by indirect evidence. In this study this hypothesis is tested by direct observation. Whether the intruder was male or female, contests between the same and the opposite sex occurred, although there were few contests between resident females and intruding males. In addition, resident pairs tended to win irrespective of the sex of the intruder, although it is reported that among burying beetles large beetles usually win intra-sexual contests. In the presence of a partner, a small resident can defend a carcass against a large con-sexual intruder. These results suggest that by means of biparental cooperation burying beetles can repel stronger intruders and supports the hypothesis that the threat of infanticide is the primary explanation for extended biparental care in these beetles.

The fecundity of the pseudococcid predators Nephus includens (Boheman) and N. bisignatus (Kirsch) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), fed on Planococcus citri Risso (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), was studied at several constant temperatures (15, 20, 25, 30, 32.5 and 35°C). With additional data for the development of the immature stages, life-fecundity tables were constructed and some population parameters calculated. The average total fecundities of N. includens at the above temperatures were 49.2, 97.8, 162.8, 108.5, 87.4 and 31.1 eggs/female, and average longevities 99.5, 84.7, 69.5, 61.1, 49.6 and 30.1 days, respectively. The net reproductive rates (R_o) were 8.0, 32.2, 60.7, 32.6, 20.7 and 2.6 females/female, and the intrinsic rates of increase (r_m) 0.014, 0.041, 0.083, 0.086, 0.077 and 0.024 females/female/day, respectively. The average total fecundities of N. bisignatus at 15, 20, 25, 30 and 32.5 ^¿C were 54.7, 72.1, 96.9, 56.0 and 22.8 eggs/female, and average longevities 116.1, 108.7, 71.8, 68.8 and 43.7 days, respectively. The net reproductive rates (R_o) were 13.9, 26.4, 31.3, 15.2 and 3.6 females/female and the intrinsic rates of increase (r_m) were 0.017, 0.035, 0.060, 0.051 and 0.024 females/female/day, respectively. The survival of females at each temperature was fitted using a Weibull distribution [S_(t) = exp(-(t/b)^c)]. Furthermore two mathematical models [Enkegaard equation: F = (a+b+x).e^(c+d.x), Analytis equation: F = a.(x-x_min)ⁿ .(x_min- x)^m] were fitted to the fecundity data.

The influence of photoperiod on the thermal requirements for development was discovered for the first time in insects during experiments on the linden-bug, Pyrrhocoris apterus. The effect of photoperiod on the duration of linden-bug development at five constant temperatures (20, 22, 24, 26 and 28°C) was measured and the thermal requirements for development at three photoperiods (14, 17 and 20 h light per day) were calculated. Bugs from four geographic populations were used in these experiments: Pyatigorsk (44°02´N, 43°04´E), Borisovka (50°36´N, 36°01´E), Mikhailov (54°15´N, 39°0´E) and Ryazan (54°36´N, 39°42´E). From the values of individual development times at different temperatures the coefficient of linear regression of development rate (the inverse of the duration) on temperature and the thermal threshold for development were calculated. Both these parameters were found to decrease significantly with decrease in day-length for all four populations studied. It means that at shorter day-lengths nymphal development is less dependent on temperature compared to the development at longer day-lengths. These effects seem to be adaptive. The development times of nymphs at relatively high temperatures (above 24-25°C) are shorter under long-days than under short days which should be advantageous at the height of summer when the days are long and the weather is warm. In the contrast, at relatively low temperatures (below 24-25°C) the nymphs develop significantly faster under short-days than under long days, which is advantageous at the end of summer as it allows the nymphs to reach the adult stage, the only stage capable of overwintering. The influence of photoperiod on the thermal reaction norm appeared to be more or less gradual, i.e. the shorter the day-length the shallower the slope of the regression line of development rate on temperature and the lower the thermal threshold for development. An analysis of the literature shows that this effect of photoperiod on the thermal requirements for development is widespread among insects but has been overlooked by previous authors. The authors conclude that the variation in the development time observed in insects at different seasons, photoperiods or food regimes, or from different populations, etc., are generally due to some modification of the thermal reaction norms and more specifically to differences in the thermal requirements for development.

A fragment encoding melittin cDNA from Apis cerana cerana fused with glutathione S-transferase gene was inserted into the multiple cloning site of the pBacFastHTb to construct a recombinant donor plasmid, pBacHT-GSTAccM, which was transposed to the target bacmid in E. coli (DH10) by Tn7 transposition function. Then the recombinant baculovirus Bacmid-GSTAccM was transfected into Tn-5B1-4 cells of the cabbage looper, Trichoplusia ni, mediated by lipofectin. The expressed protein of about 34 kDa was detected by Western blotting and triple antibody sandwich ELISA, indicating that the recombinant protein is the fusion protein of GSTAccM. Thin layer scanning showed that the expression level of GSTAccM was about 7% of the total cell protein. Purified and recovered recombinant melittin of A. c. cerana showed bioactivity in activating rabbit platelets to aggregate.

Reversal of heartbeat was monitored in vivo by noninvasive, multisensor, thermo-cardiographic and pulse-light, opto-cardiographic techniques. The dorsal vessel was sectioned at the beginning, in the middle and near the end of the abdomen. Changes in the heartbeat were simultaneously monitored in both the disconnected anterior and posterior sections of the heart. The results revealed the existence of a caudal regulatory cardiac centre located in the fused A₇-A₁₀ abdominal segments. Posterior sections, containing this terminal ampulla of the heart always exhibited a more or less normal heartbeat reversal, including both anterograde and retrograde pulsations. This shows that the forward-oriented as well as the reciprocal, backward-oriented peristaltic waves of the heart are both regulated from the posterior regulatory center, without involvement of the cephalic region. The cardiac pulsations in the anterior sections of the heart were paralysed and seriously impaired by the lesions. During the acute phase after the lesions, anterior sections showed only some convulsion-like, unidirectional, backward-oriented peristaltic pulsations of low frequency. Within one or two days after the lesions, isolated anterior sections of the heart developed a subsidiary heartbeat regulation associated with the oscillating, bi-directional peristaltic waves running alternatively, forward and backward in opposite directions.
After a few days, the previously paralysed anterior sections of the heart were able to develop perfectly coordinated patterns of heartbeat reversal. At this time, the two asynchronous heartbeat patterns ran separately in each of the divided sections of the heart. One or two weeks later, reversal of the heartbeat occasionally occurred synchronously along the entire length of the dorsal vessel. Sectioning of the ventral nerve cord, removal of the cephalic nervous system (brain, frontal ganglion, suboesophageal ganglion and the associated nerves) or removal of the fused terminal abdominal ganglionic mass and adjacent caudal nerves, had no effect on the pattern of heartbeat reversal. These facts indicate that the pupal heart of M. sexta operates purely myogenically, like the human heart. The myogenic pacemakers of the caudal regulatory cardiac centre (analogous to the atrio-ventricular nodes of the human heart) are autonomous, generating inherent rhythmicity without intervention from the nervous system. Development of subsidiary pacemakers regulating rhythmicity in the lesioned myocardium and restitution of the synchronized contracting integrity between the two disconnected sections of the heart are new cardiological features, which merit further investigation.

The number of species of migratory Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies) reported each year at a site in the south of the UK has been rising steadily. This number is very strongly linked to rising temperatures in SW Europe. It is anticipated that further climate warming within Europe will increase the numbers of migratory Lepidoptera reaching the UK and the consequences of this invasion need urgent attention.