This study of the proteins in the silk of the summer and winter cocoons of the horse chestnut leaf miner Cameraria ohridella revealed they can inhibit protease activity. The inhibitory activity of the summer silk was higher against both the fungal proteinase K and bacterial subtilisin than that of the winter silk. Also, the winter silk was more effective in inhibiting proteinase K than subtilisin. Further, it was demonstrated that some of the silk proteins are glycosylated probably by mannose carbohydrates. An electron microscopy study of the cocoons revealed the presence of silk fibres with different diameters in some pupal chambers.

In insects, allometries of exaggerated traits such as horns or mandibles are often considered species specific and constant during a season. However, given that constraints imposed by the advancing season affect the developmental processes of organisms, these allometries may not be fixed, and the switch point between morphs may vary between populations and within populations during a season. The hypothesis of such a seasonal variation in exaggerated traits was tested using the dimorphic males of the beetle Lucanus cervus. The remains of specimens killed by predators were collected along forest tracks from mid May to late August 2008 in a protected lowland forest in northern Italy. The largest beetles were collected in mid May and average size thereafter decreased. Males collected early in the season mostly had large mandibles (i.e. they belonged to the major morph). In contrast, late in the season the probability of finding males with large mandibles was very low. The threshold body size determining morph expression also shifted during the season. Early in the season, the threshold pronotum width for a 50% chance of developing into the major morph was 1.74 cm, whereas later in the season it was 1.90 cm. This shift in the threshold body size was interpreted as the effect of phenotypic plasticity in a population exposed to constraints imposed by the advancing season.

A study of the insect community inhabiting the wood-decaying bracket fungus, Cryptoporus volvatus was used to test two hypotheses proposed to account for the competitive coexistence of species in insect communities in patchy environments, niche partitioning and spatial mechanisms. A total of 8990 individuals belonging to 17 insect species emerged from 438 sporocarps (patches) collected from the field. Insect species richness increased and then declined with increase in the total insect biomass reared from a sporocarp, suggesting the potential importance of interspecific competition. Successional niche partitioning explained the spatial distribution of the four specialist species. The aggregation model of coexistence satisfactorily explained the stable coexistence of the species. The specialist species displayed higher population persistence than the generalists. Simulation studies suggest that restricted movements of adults could override patch-level larval aggregation. The effect of such restricted movements on stabilizing coexistence in fungus-insect communities has not been previously appreciated. These findings suggest that spatial mechanisms play a crucial role in the competitive coexistence of the species in the mycophagous insect communities inhabiting bracket fungi.

The paired eversible vesicles on the postabdomen of male T. notata are likely to play an important role in intraspecific communication and possibly in the notorious aggregation behaviour of these flies at buildings in autumn. The morphological and histological study of these organs provides new evidence supporting the hypothesis that they are pheromone glands. They also constitute a strong optical signal. A detailed survey of these structures could provide the bases for targeted control methods.

Butterflies of the genus Phengaris have a highly specialised life cycle involving an obligatory relationship with Myrmica ants. A knowledge of the host ant specificity is essential for understanding the relationship between a particular Phengaris species and its hosts and also important for the conservation of these butterflies. Data on host ant specificity were collected in Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Ukraine. Five different Myrmica species were used by P. teleius as hosts (M. scabrinodis, M. rubra, M. ruginodis, M. rugulosa and M. gallienii) and at most localities it was not possible to distinguish a primary host - i.e. several Myrmica species were parasitized to similar extents. Three populations of P. nausithous were found in Poland and Ukraine. In every case, M. rubra was its primary host, although in the Kraków region (Poland) two nests of M. scabrinodis and two of M. ruginodis were infested by this butterfly species. P. alcon in the four populations investigated in Poland and Ukraine invariably only used M. scabrinodis as a host despite the presence of other Myrmica species. These results obtained suggest lack of host specificity in P. teleius and high host specificity in P. nausithous, which mainly uses M. rubra as its host across Europe. Moreover, the three populations of P. alcon investigated seem to be highly specific and use M. scabrinodis as a host, which confirms the high local specialisation of these populations.

The present study focused on the evolution of the karyotype in 21 taxa of the genus Isophya, which was done by mapping the location on the chromosomes of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) coding genes using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) with an 18S rDNA probe and using silver staining (AgNO₃) to evaluate the activity of major rDNA clusters. Since the chromosome number and sex determination do not vary in this genus, the above markers were used in a detailed comparison of the cytogenetic features of species of Isophya. The species analyzed were placed into three groups based on the location of rDNA on their chromosomes: (1) rDNA-FISH signals only on the two long pairs of autosomes, (2) rDNA-FISH signals on one long and one short pair of autosomes, and (3) rDNA-FISH signals on three to five different sized pairs of autosomes. These groupings partly correspond to the morphological groupings proposed in earlier studies. One long pair of autosomes frequently carried rDNA in all the Isophya species and probably is a plesiomorphic character for these taxa. The cytogenetic mapping revealed great variability among Isophya species in the chromosomal location of major rDNA clusters. Our results suggest that the observed variation in the number of rDNA clusters can be an important species-group specific phylogenetic marker. Analysis of 18S rDNA hybridization signals showed that the evolutionary dynamics of rDNA in this genus is remarkably high and accompanied by changes in the structure of chromosomes bearing rDNA at an inter- and intra-specific level. The telomeric sequence (TTAGG)_n hybridized with the termini of most of chromosomes, however, some chromosome ends lacked signals probably due to a low copy number of telomeric repeats.

In forest ecosystems in the temperate and boreal zones in Europe, red wood ants (RWA, Formica rufa group) have a significant affect as predators and competitors in communities of ground-dwelling arthropods. Therefore, the spatiotemporal distribution and abundance of RWA affect the distribution of many other species. The hypothesis that a reduction in the abundance of RWA in clear-cut areas enables other arthropods to increase in abundance was tested. The study was conducted in NW Poland in 2007 and 2008. A total of 276 1×1 m plots were sampled and 1,696 individuals recorded. The probability of the occurrence of RWA decreased significantly towards the center of clear-cut areas and increased with increasing plant cover. The frequency of Lasius platythorax, Formica fusca and spiders in the plots significantly increased towards the edge of a clear-cut area. Moreover, the occurrence of L. platythorax was negatively associated with the presence of RWA, while that of the Myrmica species was positively associated. The effect of the distance to the edge of a clear-cut area seems to be much more pronounced than the effect of RWA. This suggests that the arthropods studied prefer habitats close to the edge that are utilized by RWA than RWA-free sites located in the centre of clear-cut areas.

The parasitic caterpillars of Maculinea (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) need to be adopted and nursed by ants of the genus Myrmica (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Each Maculinea species is locally associated with one or a few main and often several secondary host species. To determine whether the parasite-host associations bear marks of cophylogenetic constraints, we reconstructed phylogenies of Maculinea and Myrmica using DNA sequence data. We searched for evidence of cospeciation with a tree-independent (ParaFit) and tree-based (TreeFitter) method. This did not reveal any indication of phylogenetic host tracking in Maculinea. This agrees with earlier insights, which emphasise that as most of the potential host ant populations are never infested by Maculinea, the selective pressure of the butterflies on Myrmica is likely to be slight. Each Maculinea species also specialises on one or a few host plant species before adoption by ants. We suggest that Maculinea species have a substantial potential to accommodate evolutionarily to geographically changing ranges of potential Myrmica hosts, available at the oviposition sites of the butterflies. We use recently published evidence on geographically varying host ant species to discuss a suite of plausible scenarios of adaptive shifts to new Myrmica host species.

In central Japan Ganaspis xanthopoda and Asobara japonica commonly parasitize the larvae of frugivorous drosophilids, mainly in montane forests, and urban environments and small groves, respectively. These two parasitoids start reproduction about one month later than their host drosophilids, probably to avoid searching for hosts when host density is low in early spring. It is likely that the local variation in the abundance of these parasitoids and a temporal refuge for their hosts contribute to the persistence of this parasitoid-host community. The forest species, G. xanthopoda, parasitized at least three Drosophila species that are abundant in forests, supporting the hypothesis that parasitoids are better adapted to attack frequently-encountered host species. This parasitoid did not parasitize drosophilid species that are phylogenetically distantly-related to the three host species or less frequent in forests. Benefits of using such species as host would not exceed the costs of evolving virulence to them. Another parasitoid, A. japonica, parasitized various indigenous and exotic drosophilid species including those that it rarely encountered in the field. It is not clear why this species has such a wide host range.

At the south western border of its extensive distribution, the multivoltine large white butterfly, Pieris brassicae L., is exceptional in undergoing summer diapause or aestivation. In all other regions investigated, P. brassicae pupae only hibernate. The transitional zone from non-aestivating to aestivating populations is a geographically stable region south of the Pyrenees. The restriction of this response to this region cannot be accounted for in terms of genetics as aestivation is intermediately inherited, with the heritability (h²) of aestivation in inbreeding lines between 0.35 and 0.77. Two hypotheses are presented to explain why this species does not aestivate in more northern regions. First, aestivation is a behaviour that serves to synchronize generations in areas where this species produces a high number of generations per year. Second, aestivation reduces the incidence of parasitism suffered by the butterfly by desynchronizing its life cycle from that of its main parasitoid, Cotesia glomerata. The two hypotheses are not mutually exclusive and both seem to be adaptive where the species is multivoltine.

Two new body-colour mutations, albinotic (alb) and cream (cr) are isolated and described for the flightless wing-polymorphic bug, Pyrrhocoris apterus (L.). The body colour of alb mutants is white and that of cr mutants either a light cream or creamy yellow. Both the alb and cr mutations most probably inhibit the biosynthesis of the red pigment in epidermal cells that is responsible for the red-coloured body of wild-type bugs. Although sometimes the body colour of younger larval instars of cr mutants is a slightly darker creamy yellow and that of last larval instars of the alb mutants a slightly whiter greyish, there were no other important developmental changes in the body colour of alb and cr homozygous bugs associated with metamorphosis and post-metamorphic aging of adults. Standard genetic analyses showed that both these mutations are inherited as autosomal recessives and exhibit complete penetrance and uniform expression in both sexes. The fertility of the alb and cr homozygous females and fertilization success of the alb and cr homozygous males were substantially lower than those of wild-type bugs.

A new species group and five new species of mites of the genus Pavania Lombardini, 1949 belonging to the family Dolichocybidae (Acari: Heterostigmata) are described from Iran. Pavania gymnopleuri Hajiqanbar & Khaustov sp. n., P. sabzevarensis Hajiqanbar & Khaustov sp. n. and P. onthophagi Hajiqanbar & Khaustov sp. n., represent a new gymnopleuri species group. Two new species are also described in the fusiformis group: P. kamalii Hajiqanbar & Khaustov sp. n. and P. elongata Hajiqanbar & Khaustov sp. n. All new species are associated with scarabaeid and carabid beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae, Carabidae). This is the first record of the family Dolichocybidae from Iran. The leg setation and geographic distribution of all genera of this family are discussed and keys to genera and species of the genus Pavania are provided.

A positive correlation between the parental effort of a male and female should promote stable biparental care. In order to prevent infanticide male and female burying beetles are said to guard against intruders cooperatively and the presence of a male partner is said to increase the probability of successful defence. However, this hypothesis is supported only by indirect evidence. In this study this hypothesis is tested by direct observation. Whether the intruder was male or female, contests between the same and the opposite sex occurred, although there were few contests between resident females and intruding males. In addition, resident pairs tended to win irrespective of the sex of the intruder, although it is reported that among burying beetles large beetles usually win intra-sexual contests. In the presence of a partner, a small resident can defend a carcass against a large con-sexual intruder. These results suggest that by means of biparental cooperation burying beetles can repel stronger intruders and supports the hypothesis that the threat of infanticide is the primary explanation for extended biparental care in these beetles.

The infraspecific taxonomy of the European populations of the Large Blue (Maculinea arion) is confusing. Several subspecies have been described mostly based on external morphological features. In the Carpathian Basin two subspecies have been distinguished. Maculinea arion arion flies from mid-May to mid-June and Maculinea arion ligurica is on the wing from the end of June to mid-August. The two forms show some differentiation in habitat use, but occasionally can also share habitats with two peaks in the appearance of butterflies. Our aim was to study the level and structure of genetic variation in a set of populations of the two phenologically different M. arion. Imagos were collected from 8 localities between 2000 and 2006. Enzyme polymorphism was analysed at 13 enzyme loci using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. In the analysis of the data, we estimated the parameters of polymorphism. To study the pattern of genetic differentiation F-statistics, hierarchical F-statistics and AMOVA were computed. GeneClass and Structure were both applied to analyse the differentiation between the two phenologically different sets of populations. Cavalli-Sforza and Edwards' arc distances were calculated and a UPGMA dendrogram was constructed on the basis of the distance matrix. PCA analysis was also carried out using the allele frequencies of the individuals. The level of polymorphism was relatively high in M. arion. The results of all analyses indicated that the differences between the two sets of phenologically different populations accounted for a low percentage of the total differentiation. In addition, a sizeable amount of variation could be attributed to the differences among the samples collected from the same population in consecutive years. Thus, we concluded that the "spring" and "summer arion" could not be considered as separate ESUs, although we could attribute conservation value to both forms on the basis of their phenological differentiation and habitat use.

The effects of three factors operating during pre-emergence development period on some characteristics of drones were studied. Weight of newly emerged drones, length of forewing, length of tibia, length of femur, length and width of basitarsus and number of spermatozoa in drones from colonies in which the workers had access to drone brood (A), the size of brood cells differed (B) or the colony had a queen or was queenless (C), were determined. For this purpose, 9 colonies were chosen at random from the test apiary and prepared so that each contained one empty Langstroth frame with six small sub-frames containing drone combs, three of which were used to test the effect of one level and the other three the other level of each factor. The results showed that, colony status had a greater effect on the parameters measured than either the size of the brood cells or whether the workers had access to sealed brood cells. Most of the parameters were significantly different in C, whereas only a few in B and non in A were significantly different. The distance between discriminant scores in each experiment enhanced the previous results, as it was highest in C, followed by B and then A. Optimal drone characteristics may be recorded for colonies in which the queens were induced to lay unfertilized eggs in newly built drone combs, and then removed and the drone brood reared in a queen less colony.

This paper examines some biological aspects and the predatory capacity of Chrysoperla externa fed nymphs of Sipha flava and reared at different temperatures. Recently hatched larvae were placed individually in Petri dishes, fed ad libitum with S. flava and reared at either 12, 16, 20, 24, 28 or 32 ± 1°C, a RH of 70 ± 10% and a 12-h photophase. The experiment was fully randomized with 30 replicates of each treatment. The duration and survival in each instar, and larval and pupal stages (pre-pupa + pupa) were analyzed. To determine the predatory capacity of larvae they were each provided daily with three-day-old nymphs of the aphid, in a number greater than they could consume. Ninety C. externa larvae were kept individually in Petri dishes at 24 ± 1°C, and their daily consumption recorded during development. Temperature influenced the rate of larval and pupal development. There was a decrease in the duration of development with increase in temperature. Regression analyses, based on quadratic equations, were used to describe the effect of temperature on the duration of development in the different instars of C. externa. This revealed that the base temperature increased as the larvae developed towards the adult phase. The survival of larvae in the first and second instars was similar at 12, 16, 20, 24, 28 and 32°C but none of the third instar larvae completed their development at 12°C and 32°C. The average daily and total consumption of aphids by third instar larvae was about 48 times greater than that of first instar larvae. The larvae ate an average of 10, 37 and 479 aphids in the first, second and third instars, respectively.

Although females of the horned beetle, Trypoxylus dichotomus septentrionalis, have only small horns they often fight over access to feeding sites by head-butting each other. In addition, they sometimes show intrasexual mounting. In this study 82 females of different sizes were used to determine the relationship between fighting and mounting. Large females more often won fights and so gained access to food than small females. In contrast, small females more often mounted large females and then gained access to food than large females. These results suggest that female mounting may function as a tactic for reducing intrasexual fighting between small and large females.

Transgenic tobacco plants expressing the Allium porrum L. (leek) agglutinin (called APA) under the control of the 35S constitutive promoter were tested for their insecticidal activity against the cotton leafworm, Spodoptera littoralis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Southern blot and PCR analysis confirmed that the APA gene was integrated into the plant genome. Northern and Western blots as well as semi-quantitative agglutination assays revealed lectin expression at various levels in the transgenic lines. Biochemical analyses indicated that the recombinant APA has the same molecular structure as the native lectin. Native and recombinant lectin have the same N-terminal amino acid sequence. Bioassays using detached leaves from transgenic tobacco plants demonstrated that the ectopically expressed APA significantly (p < 0.05) reduced the weight gain of 2nd-instar larvae of S. littoralis. This inhibitory effect was observed throughout the experiment and on day 11 the caterpillars fed on transgenic tobacco leaves were 25-30% lighter in weight than the control caterpillars fed on wild type plants. In addition the lectin retarded the development of the larvae and metamorphosis, reduced pupal weight and increased mortality rate. These findings suggest that APA is a suitable insect resistance protein for integrating into plant genomes for controlling S. littoralis.

Brill, Leiden-Boston, 2009, 299 pp., 46 colour plates. ISBN 978-90-04-16947-0. Price EUR 169.00/USD 250.00.

† Pyrenicocephalus jarzembowskii, gen. et sp. n. (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Enicocephalomorpha: Enicocephalidae: Enicocephalinae) from Early Eocene, London Clay, England, Isle of Sheppey, is described and illustrated according to the unique pyritized adult head reported as a larval enicocephalid head by Jarzembowski (1986). The head anatomy of similar and related genera of Enicocephalinae is compared and the close relationship of the new genus to a clade including the extant genera Oncylocotis, Embolorrhinus and Hoplitocoris is suggested, most probably as the sister genus to Hoplitocoris (presently with Afrotropical, East Palaearctic and Oriental range).

The structure of the holocentric chromosomes of the rosy apple aphid, Dysaphis plantaginea (2n = 12), and pear-grass aphid, Melanaphis pyraria (2n = 8), was studied using C-banding, NOR, Giemsa and fluorochrome staining, and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH). Contrary to the equilocal distribution of heterochromatin typical of monocentric chromosomes, in both species C-banding evidenced a tendency of highly repetitive DNAs to be restricted to the X chromosomes. Silver staining and FISH, using a 28S rDNA probe, located rDNA genes on one telomere of each X chromosome, the only brightly fluorescent C-positive sites revealed by CMA₃ staining, whereas all other heterochromatic C-bands were DAPI positive. Both species showed a noticeable amount of rDNA heteromorphism. Mitotic recombination is proposed as a possible mechanism responsible for the variation in size of rDNA.

In this paper we review the taxonomy of the genus Zavrelia Kieffer, Thienemann & Bause and present emended generic diagnoses of all major life stages. Illustrated keys to larvae, pupae, adult males and females are presented as well as descriptions of four species new to science. Zavrelia species are only recorded from the northern hemisphere and comprise in total ten small to minute species. The following life stages and species are described: Larva, pupa, adult male and adult female of Zavrelia aristata sp. n., Zavrelia hudsoni sp. n., Zavrelia pentatoma Kieffer & Bause and Zavrelia sinica sp. n.; pupa and adult male of Zavrelia casasi sp. n.; and adult males of Zavrelia clinovolsella Guo & Wang and Zavrelia tusimatijea (Sasa & Suzuki). Zavrelia atrofasciata Kieffer and Stempellina paludosa Goetghebuer are proposed as new junior synonyms of Zavrelia pentatoma and lectotypes of Zavrelia nigritula, Zavrelia pentatoma and Stempellina paludosa are designated.

Two closely related parasitoid wasp species with different host specificities were used for experimental studies on the biology of host finding, a crucial element of parasitoid life history: The habitat and host specialist Nasonia vitripennis and the habitat and host generalist Dibrachys microgastri (Chalcidoidea: Pteromalidae). The host finding parameters tested included reaction to olfactory cues, aspects of locomotor activity, ability to locate hidden hosts and day-night-activity. The results revealed distinct interspecific differences that match the respective host and habitat ranges of the two species. In N. vitripennis host finding is dominated by olfactory reaction to hosts and host habitat, i.e., fly puparia and birds' nests. In D. microgastri olfactory cues have only a minor role. Its host finding is characterized by rapid searching at random. Both species are able to locate hidden hosts. Although still incomplete, these insights into host finding by two parasitoid species with different life history strategies indicate they can be characterized by specific combinations of behavioural host finding features.

Cocoon weight and shell weight are the key economic traits ultimately determining silk yield. In order to detect the main quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with the cocoon traits of the mulberry silkworm, Bombyx mori, the parents of larvae that produced cocoons that differed greatly in weight and shell weight were screened using 240 primer pairs of single nucleotide polymorphic markers (SNPs) representing all the 28 linkage groups in silkworm. Out of the 240 primer pairs, 48 (20%) revealed distinct polymorphism between the parents, which was confirmed by the co-dominant expression of both polymorphic PCR products in the F₁ generation. The bulked segregant analysis (BSA) was used to compare the SNP profiles of the parents, F₁ and F₂ bulks using the 48 informative SNP primers. This revealed that out of 48 primer pairs, only one pair, i.e., No. 04124 of the linkage group 4 showed clear differences in the amplified products between the bulks corresponding to that of the parents with different cocoon traits suggesting that the DNA regions amplified by this primer pair are closely linked to the QTL controlling the cocoon traits. The results were also confirmed by screening the backcross (BC) progeny. This is the first report of the identification of a QTL using SNPs with BSA. The results of the present study indicate that it might be possible to use SNPs for marker assisted selection (MAS) in silkworm breeding programs aimed at improving cocoon traits.

The aim of this study was to investigate whether haemocytes of Galleria mellonella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) larvae produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) like human blood phagocytes. The production of ROS was measured first using luminol-enhanced chemiluminescence of un-stimulated and stimulated (four activators with different modes of action) haemolymph or isolated haemocytes. However, spontaneous and activated production of ROS remained at the background level. In subsequent experiments an ultrasensitive fluorescence method using Amplex Red reagent to detect hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) was used. After optimization, Amplex Red was successfully used for determining H₂O₂ production by both un-stimulated and stimulated haemocytes. To determine the affect of pH and ions on the measurement, several diluent solutions were tested. This revealed that Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ ions are less important for the reaction in insect than mammalian cells. Among the activators tested, phorbol myristate acetate (PMA) and calcium ionophore (Ca-I) had the best stimulatory effect on insect samples, while opsonised zymosan particles (OZP) was the best activator for human phagocytes. In conclusion, the haemocytes of G. mellonella produce H₂O₂ as an important innate immunity factor, but under different conditions and in different amounts, which probably results in them being less effective in killing microbes than human phagocytes.

This study reports the results of a molecular phylogenetic analysis of thirty three species of Ennominae (Lepidoptera: Geometridae). The aim of this analysis was to determine the phylogenetic affinities of 13 European species not previously studied using these methods. Fragments of seven nuclear genes, elongation factor 1 alpha (EF-1α), wingless (wgl), isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH), glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), ribosomal protein S5 (RpS5) and expansion segments D1 and D2 of the 28S rRNA gene and fragment of one mitochondrial gene, cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI), were used. In the analysis using Bayesian phylogenetic inference, original gene sequences of the target species were combined with a larger data matrix of 20 species of Ennominae, used in a previous study (Wahlberg et al., 2010, Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 55: 929-938). Most notably, the results indicate that the representatives of the genera Cepphis, Plagodis, Pseudopanthera and Selenia form a well-supported monophyletic group which appeared as the sister clade to the rest of the "ennomine" group of tribes. On the other hand, Crocallis and Opisthograptis group together with Ennomos. These results conflict with previous tribal subdivisions of the subfamily pointing to the need to reconsider the concepts of Ennomini and Ourapterygini. Within the tribe Macariini, the genus Macaria appears to be more closely related to Itame (= Speranza) than to Chiasmia clathrata. The emerging phylogenetic tree of Ennominae suggests only a limited phylogenetic inertia in body size making this group a promising target for comparative studies on this central life history trait and its correlates.

This is the first study of the morphological and molecular variation in two peripheral populations of the butterfly Jutta Arctic, Oeneis jutta, a glacial relict species endangered by the fragmentation of its habitat in Poland. An analysis of the morphological characteristics indicates that both Polish populations are similar but differ significantly in some characteristics. Levels of genetic variation were assessed using mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 5 (ND5) gene fragments together with a segment of the mtDNA control region (CR) and a nuclear elongation factor-1a (EF-1a) gene sequence. In addition, the pattern of molecular variation in specimens from eastern and northern Europe was examined. Interestingly, the analysis of variation in a 932-bp sequence of the nuclear EF-1a gene in representatives of the populations studied revealed a relatively higher level of diversity than that of mitochondrial genes. There was evidence of divergence between the peripheral populations and lack of gene flow between them. The two closely situated populations had a high F_ST value (0.69), which clearly indicates their isolation. These populations appear to be demographically independent breeding units, with distinctive allele frequencies and consequently should be recognized as separate units for management and conservation. The preliminary results are in accord with an a priori subdivision based on collection areas and suggest that habitat fragmentation has affected the genetic diversity and structure of these populations.

During the last few decades the tree line has shifted upward on Mediterranean mountains. This has resulted in a decrease in the area of the sub-alpine prairie habitat and an increase in the threat to strictly orophilous moths that occur there. This also occurred on the Pollino Massif due to the increase in temperature and decrease in rainfall in Southern Italy. We found that a number of moths present in the alpine prairie at 2000 m appear to be absent from similar habitats at 1500-1700 m. Some of these species are thought to be at the lower latitude margin of their range. Among them, Pareulype berberata and Entephria flavicinctata are estimated to be the most threatened because their populations are isolated and seem to be small in size. The tops of these mountains are inhabited by specialized moth communities, which are strikingly different from those at lower altitudes on the same massif further south. The majority of the species recorded in the sub-alpine prairies studied occur most frequently and abundantly in the core area of the Pollino Massif. Species and, as a consequence, communities found at high altitudes are highly vulnerable to climate warming, and need further monitoring.

We analyzed patterns of geometrid species richness in South Korea to assess the observed and estimated species richness gradient, to determine predictors for the distribution of moths and to investigate the effect of latitude on the species richness of moths in the Korean peninsula. The species richness was analyzed for 541 geometrid moths across 17 quadrates, with each quadrate defined by one degree of latitude and longitude. Two subgroups of geometrid moths were adopted according to their distributional ranges: Palearctic (435 species, 80.4%) and Oriental (106 species, 19.6%). To investigate the relationship between the distribution of geometrid moths and environment, eight variables were used. The estimated species richness of geometrids was calculated using the Chao 2 estimator because there was uneven sampling effort across the quadrates. Due to multicollinearity we used covariance values produced by principal component analysis and the first four axes adopted have eigenvalues >= 1.0. Two models of regression analyses were applied based on multiple linear regression using eight variables (model I) and principal components axes (model II). Of the two subgroups of geometrid moths the Palearctic species richness increased with latitude, but not that of Oriental species richness. A combined effect of abiotic (maximum altitude, temperature, rainfall, and latitude) and biotic (plant species richness and vegetation) variables was indicated by both models of regression analyses. The different effect of each spatial and environmental predictor on the distribution of geometrid moths on the Korean peninsula is discussed. The significant relationship between estimated species richness and latitude indicate a peninsular effect on geometrid moths in South Korea.

The Pselaphinae is a large subfamily of staphylinid beetles with a characteristic habitus and small body size. Detailed morphological and behavioural studies on these beetles are scarce. In this study, specimens of Bryaxis puncticollis (Denny, 1825), Bryaxis bulbifer (Reichenbach, 1816), Bythinus burrelli (Denny, 1825), Brachygluta fossulata (Reichenbach, 1816), Rybaxis longicornis (Leach, 1817), Pselaphus heisei (Herbst, 1792) and Tyrus mucronatus (Panzer, 1803), all collected in Northern Germany, have been examined with regard to their sensory organs (eyes and antennae), mouthparts and method of capturing prey. Scanning electron microscope studies revealed sex-specific differences in the numbers of ommatidia in Bryaxis puncticollis. A multitude of different sensilla on the antennae and great differences in the shape of the mouthparts were observed and peculiarities of the antennae and maxillary palps (e.g., the segment-like appendage) were examined using scanning and transmission electron microscopy. The prey-capture behaviour of these species is described in detail for the first time based on laboratory experiments using Heteromurus nitidus (Templeton, 1835) (Collembola) as prey. This behaviour seems to be tribe specific, ranging from simple seizure with the mandibles (e.g., Rybaxis longicornis, tribe Brachyglutini) to the employment of raptorial legs (Tyrus mucronatus, tribe Tyrini). The two Bryaxis species (tribe Bythinini) even employ their apparently sticky maxillary palps to capture prey. The assumption that a viscous secretion is used by these species is supported by the finding of glandular structures in the interior of their maxillary palps. Prey-capture is preceded by a complicated preparation phase in most of the species and followed by a sequence of prey-handling movements that seem to be adapted to restrain prey such as Collembola. In simple prey-choice experiments the beetles of several species preferred small prey, irrespective of their own body size. In these experiments, Bryaxis bulbifer and Brachygluta fossulata were more successful in capturing prey than Bryaxis puncticollis and Pselaphus heisei. This might be related to their different sensory equipment and different methods of capturing prey.