Cuticular lipids are essential for the functioning of all arthropods. They maintain water balance, are involved in intraspecific and interspecific chemical communication and prevent fungal and bacterial infections. Although, the insect's lipid layer is relatively well known, that of spiders is considerably less well known. Only a few species are studied in terms of the identification and composition of cuticular lipids. The results obtained so far are discussed in this article. Spiders are subjected to various forms of extraction and in the majority of cases the subsequent analysis using GC-MS identified hydrocarbons, carboxylic acids, esters, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, methyl ethers and cholesterol. Among these lipids there are semiochemicals, mainly pheromones and kin recognition cues. Despite the few publications on spider cuticular lipids, this subject is significant in terms of searching for antimicrobial substances such as potential bio fungicides and medicines.

In temperate regions, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster (Meigen, 1830) is subject to seasonal changes in natural conditions. Insects exhibit a wide range of adaptive responses to changes in the seasons. In this study, we focused on polyteny, which plays an important role in fruit fly development. Polytene chromosomes are the result of endocycles, a variant of the cell cycle based on endoreduplication. This phenomenon is the basis of postmitotic growth, which is caused by cell expansion. The purpose of the study was to investigate the seasonal dynamics of the levels of endoreduplication and polyteny in fruit flies obtained from the natural population. Flies caught in the spring and autumn of 2019 and 2020 were used as biological material. Chromosomal differences in polyteny were studied by cytomorphometry. We found that patterns of polyteny in Drosophila salivary glands undergo seasonal changes. To a certain extent, these variations correlate with changes in the direction of natural selection, which undergoes seasonal fluctuations. Indices of endoreduplication and cell ploidy acquire the greatest values after overwintering, during which there is an extreme decline in population size and flies undergo selection for viability and stress resistance. During the growing season, endoreduplication and ploidy indicators are reduced. We believe that this facilitates population growth by resulting in smaller flies with accelerated development and faster change of generations. The seasonal component in the total variation of chromosome polyteny in the salivary glands of Drosophila larvae was 21.9%. No significant sex differences were found for this trait.

Prior familiarity of carabid beetle populations with seeds of a plant species might result in a preference for locally available species, either due to evolutionary adaptation or learning. Rejection of exotic species might favor the survival of the exotic species due to enemy release. In adults of two Carabidae species, Pseudoophonus rufipes (DeGeer) and Harpalus affinis (Schrank), we investigated the consumption of seeds of the local (growing inside the distribution range of experimental carabid individuals) Asteraceae species Taraxacum officinale and Crepis biennis, and the exotic (growing outside this area) Asteraceae species Adenostyles alliariae and Homogyne alpina. We assumed that the seeds of the exotic species would be consumed less than the seeds of the local species because the seeds of exotic species are not typically found within the range of the tested carabid populations and therefore may be preferred less than the seeds of local species. The seeds of both exotic species were consumed less than the seeds of the preferred local species, T. officinale, but were consumed more than the seeds of the rejected local species, C. biennis. Both carabid species preferred A. alliariae seeds over H. alpina seeds. No difference was observed between the preferences of the mobile and well-flying species P. rufipes and the sedentary and rarely flying H. affinis. The study did not demonstrate the hypothesized preference of the two tested beetle species for the seeds of locally available plant species.

The new genus Kevinilla Bartholomay & Cambra includes the following four Neotropical species: Kevinilla ludovica (Cameron, 1895) comb. n. (the type species), K. bicarinata (Cambra & Quintero, 2008) comb. n., K. bimaculata (Cambra & Quintero, 2008) comb. n., and K. hansoni (Cambra & Quintero, 2008) comb. n., all transferred from Pseudomethoca. A neighbour joining tree clustered IST1 sequences of Kevinilla in a subclade of the main clade, which includes species of Pseudomethoca and Dasymutilla. Therefore, here Kevinilla is considered to be a member of the subfamily Sphaeropthalminae, tribe Pseudomethocini. A key for both sexes of the known species of Kevinilla is given, as well as an account of seasonal flight activity of males recorded over six years using Malaise traps on Barro Colorado Island, Panama.

Extrafloral nectaries (EFNs) are nectar-secreting structures found on various plants that attract insects, especially ants, which may in turn provide indirect defense against herbivores. This study investigates the presence, morphology, and ecological role of EFNs in Momordica charantia (bitter gourd) and documents the diversity and spatial behavior of its ant visitors. Field observations and scanning electron microscopy revealed button-shaped EFNs located along the adaxial leaf margin, which first appeared at the flowering stage and peaked during the early fruiting stage before declining. Six facultative ant species - Tapinoma melanocephalum, Crematogaster subnuda, Camponotus compressus, Camponotus sericeus, Tetraponera rufonigra, and Lepto­genys sp. - were recorded visiting the EFNs. All species spent significantly more time on the leaf margins than on other plant parts, with T. melanocephalum being the only species to show a strong preference for flowers. The findings highlight a stage-dependent EFN production in M. charantia and a preferential ant visitation pattern centered around EFNs, suggesting a potential role for these glands in ant-mediated plant defense. This study underscores the need for further experimental research to assess the defensive benefits of EFN-visiting ants in crop protection.

We compared the performance of three entomological LED lamps that differed in intensity and wavelength composition by using them to catch 2257 individuals of 161 species and 11 families of nocturnal Lepidoptera in two grassland habitats (dry grassland and orchard meadow). The study was carried out in June and July 2020 in the Jenzig conservation area (Jena, Germany, 50°56´12˝N, 11°37´37˝E). In each habitat, we sampled three microhabitats that were either exposed, moderately sheltered or sheltered. Data were analysed using generalized linear mixed models. A lamp with high radiant flux (LepiLED maxi: 1.34 W mixed radiation) attracted 37% more moths and 5% more species than a lamp with a lower radiant flux (LepiLED mini: 0.55 W mixed radiation). The maxi lamp also attracted 17% more moths and 6% more species than the same lamp with UV radiation only (LepiLED maxi switch UV mode: 0.59 W). However, the maxi lamp only performed significantly better in exposed microhabitats, whereas the UV lamp performed similarly in the sheltered and moderately sheltered sites. The number of individuals caught in the dry grassland habitat was greater than in the orchard meadow (1288 vs. 969), whereas the number of species was similar in both habitats (120 vs. 128). Higher numbers of individuals were caught in the moderately sheltered sites than in the sheltered and exposed sites (935 vs. 773 vs. 549). The same trend was seen in the number of species (119 vs. 113 vs. 110). The communities of moths caught by traps with different lamps were similar. We conclude that light-trapping is a robust method that delivers comparable results even when different lamps are used. The use of several weak lamps is more efficient and results in larger catches than the use of a single strong lamp.

In this paper data on the number of follicles in testes and the number of ovarioles in ovaries of planthoppers (Hemiptera: Fulgoromorpha) are summarised and discussed. Fulgoromorpha include about 14,000 described species belonging to 21 families distributed throughout the world. The number of follicles is known for 186 species, 123 genera and 17 families, and the number of ovarioles is known for 52 species, 44 genera and 11 families. Almost 80% of the species studied belong to the families Dictyophar­idae, Delphacidae, Issidae, Cixiidae and Achilidae. The number of follicles per testis and ovarioles per ovary varies within similar ranges, from 2 to 30 and from 3 to just over 30, respectively. The predominant number of follicles is 6, which is found in more than one third of the species and in almost all of the families studied. This number is considered as an ancestral trait for Fulgoromorpha. In each family, the ancestral number can vary both upwards or downwards, probably due to either polymerization or oligomerization. In the more basal families, a decreasing trend clearly predominates, whereas an increasing trend predominates in the more advanced families. As for the numbers of ovarioles, they tend to vary within families, with rare exceptions (e.g., Dictyopharidae), but that is probably due to the lack of data.

Quantifying the degree of ecological specialization of animals is essential for understanding the evolution of resource use in changing environments. Stable isotope analysis (SIA) is a powerful tool for investigating the ecological niches of animals and providing insights into their diet. This study focused on the ecological role of two coastal species of ants, Camponotus morosus and Dorymyrmex goetschi, in Chile. Their seasonal isotopic niches were characterised using carbon (δ¹³C) and nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) analysis. This was done on El Tabito Beach, a coastal area with a pronounced seasonality. The results indicated unique niches for each species and variation between them across seasons. While C. morosus maintained a consistent niche breadth throughout the year, D. goetschi displayed a narrower niche in summer. Our analyses showed that terrestrial-derived carbon constituted the primary food resource for both species of ants, with a slight increase in the marine component in summer. Overall, the results highlight seasonal variations in isotopic signatures, niche breadth, and diet composition and underscore the importance of considering temporal dynamics in ant ecology and, in particular, in trophic interactions.

Background colour matching is considered highly effective in preventing the detection of an animal by visual predators. In a grasshopper species with green-brown polymorphism, a green morph on grass and a brown morph on bare ground or dead litter may be difficult for visual predators to distinguish from their respective backgrounds. However, few studies have examined the effects of background colour on the predation susceptibility of green and brown morphs of grasshoppers under natural conditions. In this study, the frequency of injuries including autotomy in the green-brown polyphenic grasshopper Atractomorpha lata was compared between two substrates: dense green grass and sparse grass (i.e., mixed cover consisting of 50% green grass and 50% bare soil or dead litter). More than half of injuries were hind-limb autotomy. The frequency of injuries was higher on dense grass for the brown morph than for the green morph, but on sparse grass it was higher for the green morph than for the brown morph. Because autotomy in orthopterans is almost always caused by birds, we conclude that background colour matching in A. lata functions as camouflage against predators with colour vision, such as birds.

Skinner G.J. & Jarman A.P. 2025: Ants. Pelagic Publishing, London, 304 pp. ISBN 9781784273040. Price GBP 31.99.

Infestation by invasive horse-chestnut leaf miner, Cameraria ohridella Deschka & Dimić, permanently lowers the aesthetic and cultural value of horse-chestnut in Central Europe. In 2017-2018, in urban zones in the cities Parchovany and Strážske in the eastern part of Slovakia, we assessed the efficacy of systemic applications of TreeAzin^®, an azadirachtin-based product, in controlling Cameraria ohridella in trials in which it was microinjected into tree trunks. A total of 16 Aesculus hippocastanum trees were treated with 3 ml of TreeAzin^® per centimetre diameter at breast height [DBH] and another 17 were treated with 5 ml of the same product per centimetre at DBH, at two study plots. In total, 18 trees were left untreated as controls. In this field experiment, we confirmed significantly higher efficacy in the year of application and the following season. Statistically significant differences were found in the average leaf damage caused by C. ohridella, between treated (4.2-24.5% avg. leaf damage) and untreated trees (75.5-94.3% avg. leaf damage). At the end of the first growing season, 81.2-95.0% of the untreated control tree crowns were defoliated while defoliation of the treated trees was 19.2-31.6%. Both the 3 and 5 ml/cm doses were equally effective in terms of crown and leaf damage; no statistical differences were found in average leaf and crown damage between trees treated with doses of 3 ml/cm and 5 ml/cm. Similar results were also obtained the following year. Leaf damage of treated trees was 40.4-16.8% and of untreated trees 67.9%. Crown damage of treated trees was 49.7-59.8% and of untreated trees 78.8%. During the period of this study, the crowns of all the treated trees were statistically and visually healthier and fuller than those of untreated trees. Thus, the efficacy of this systemic insecticide in controlling C. ohridella in Europe is very promising and provides a suitable treatment for reducing the incidence of this invasive pest.

The tendency of parasitoid wasps to oviposit in a previously parasitised host (superparasitism) has long been considered detrimental to their fitness, until recent evidence showed that it may be an adaptive strategy. The solitary koinobiont parasitoid, Coccygidium luteum, was observed to superparasitise the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, under laboratory conditions. This study was conducted to elucidate the oviposition choice between unparasitised and previously parasitised hosts by C. luteum and to determine the effect of superparasitism on progeny development and adult fitness, using fall armyworm larvae as hosts. In a choice assay, previously parasitised and unparasitised hosts were simultaneously exposed to C. luteum for oviposition. Oviposition duration and preference were observed and the influence of superparasitism on the development of immature parasitoids and adult fitness were investigated by exposing host larvae to single, double and triple parasitism at 1 h intervals. Coccygidium luteum readily attacked both unparasitised and previously parasitised hosts without discrimination. However, the time spent ovipositing on the unparasitised host was significantly longer than that on a previously parasitised host. Superparasitism did not significantly affect progeny development and the fitness of adult C. luteum. Offspring development time and size of adult parasitoids were similar in superparasitised hosts compared to hosts that were parasitised once. We conclude that superparasitism in C. luteum will have no effect on its mass rearing for the biological control of S. frugiperda.

Molecular markers have become indispensable tools in contemporary ecological research, offering insights into genetic diversity and structure. These parameters are pivotal for addressing fundamental questions in landscape ecology and planning effective species conservation. Grasshoppers have one of the largest genomes known. A significant portion of the grasshopper genome is composed of mobile genetic elements, with a particular abundance of retrotransposons. In this study, we utilised the iPBS (inter-primer binding sequence) PCR based fingerprinting marker system, as a novel approach based on retrotransposons for the study of Orthoptera. We evaluate the efficacy of the iPBS primers system in characterizing the genetic diversity of two large-genome grasshopper species, Stethophyma grossum and Chrysochraon dispar. Our findings demonstrate the potential of iPBS markers as a valuable tool for assessing the genetic diversity of orthopterans. This approach offers a promising avenue for future research in population genetics and conservation biology.

The plant-biotic pollinator interaction is crucial for the survival of both organisms. Insects are recognised as effective biotic pollinators. As there are few specific studies on the pollination of angiosperms, the emphasis of this review is on understanding the pollination process by reviewing the knowledge of the ginger-insect pollinator interaction in Asia. Currently the plant-pollinator interaction of only 5% of Asian species of Zingiberaceae is evaluated. Previous studies indicate that bees, such as, halictid and blue-banded bees are, among the many floral vistors, the most important pollinators of ginger plants in Asia. Knowledge of non-bee pollinators is still scarce. In order to obtain a more detailed understanding of the interrelationship of the pollinators of ginger plants with the morphology of their flowers, floral scent and geographical factors, further research is needed.

The gut microbiota of dung beetles comprises bacteria, archaea, and fungi. Most studies have only considered the bacterial element and focused on differences between species reared in the lab. This study considered microorganisms from the gut of Trypocopris pyrenaeus and concentrated on differences among wild individuals of an alpine Italian population. We revealed remarkable interindividual variation in the taxonomic composition of microbiota. Core taxa were few, while individuals harboured many exclusive taxa. Therefore, considering only a few individuals to describe the microbiota of a species is not sufficient. The study also revealed that the nMDS ordination of individuals based on prokaryotes was different from that based on fungi, meaning that both groups should be considered in microbiota analyses and that one microbic group cannot be considered a surrogate of the other. We identified many functions potentially provided by the microbiota and found the taxonomic richness of prokaryotes to be positively correlated with their functional richness. The analysis of the functions potentially provided by these microorganisms confirmed that the gut microbiota, in addition to being essential for the health of their host, may also contribute to the effective functioning of the ecosystems of which dung beetles are part.

Given the development of resistance in stored-grain insect pests to phosphine (PH₃), the grain industry is seeking alternative methods for effective pest and resistance management. We evaluated the efficacy of allyl isothiocyanate (AITC), a potential alternative fumigant against adults of phosphine-susceptible (PH₃-S) and resistant strains (PH₃-R) of five major grain insect pests, including Sitophilus oryzae (Linnaeus), Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), Rhyzopertha dominica (Fabricius), Oryzaephilus surinamensis (Linnaeus), and Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens). Adult dose-mortality response curves were established for each species, and the mortality endpoints of post-fumigated adult S. oryzae and T. castaneum were compared. The effect of commodities on the efficacy of AITC was briefly investigated from the perspective of adult insect mortality. The PH₃-R strain of S. oryzae was the most tolerant and required the highest dose, LC₅₀: 1.75 µL a.i. L^-1, whereas the PH₃-R strain of C. ferrugineus was the most susceptible to AITC, requiring the lowest LC₅₀: 0.59 µL a.i. L^-1. Comparisons of LC_99.9 across the species and strains confirmed that AITC at 2.59 µL a.i. L^-1 was adequate in achieving complete control of adults across all five insect species tested, irrespective of their resistance status to phosphine. These results suggest that phosphine-resistant insects fail to confer cross-resistance to AITC. Post-exposure endpoint mortality studies revealed a steady increase in mortality in S. oryzae (from 18% at 24 h to 100% at 168 h). In contrast, no such changes were recorded with T. castaneum, suggesting the existence of species-specific differences in responding to AITC. The presence of insect-infested commodities, such as rolled oats and cracked sorghum, reduced the efficacy of AITC, indicating that this fumigant could be sorptive.

Haplodiploidy is a sex determination system in which males are haploid and females are diploid. In the typical haplodiploid system, females inherit half of their genome from each parent, whereas males inherit a haploid genome exclusively from their mother. However, several exceptions to this pattern have recently been reported in some insects and spider mites, underscoring the need for rigorous genetic analyses of inheritance patterns in other haplodiploid species. Thrips (order Thysanoptera) are a major clade that exhibits haplodiploidy. Here, we investigated inheritance in the onion thrips, Thrips tabaci, by comparing parent-offspring genotypes using an amplicon-based microsatellite genotyping-by-sequencing method (Short Sequence Repeats-Genotyping by Sequencing, SSR-GBS). We successfully genotyped eight loci across eight families from the sexual lineage and additionally analyzed five families from the thelytokous lineage, including both diploid and triploid strains. In the sexual lineage, segregation conformed to arrhenotoky: F₁ females inherited one allele from each parent, and F₁ males carried a single maternal allele. In the thelytokous lineage, offspring inherited only alleles present in the mother. Compared with fragment-length genotyping, SSR-GBS increased the mean number of alleles detected per locus by 28% and reduced the rate of size homoplasy (alleles of the same size but different sequences), yielding clearer separation of the sexual and thelytokous lineages. These findings advance our understanding of the evolution of reproductive systems in this major haplodiploid clade and demonstrate the utility of SSR-GBS for high-resolution SSR genotyping.

Insects have evolved highly specific and sensitive olfactory sensory systems to detect plant hosts and mates. Chemosensory proteins (CSPs) play an important role in this process, but in this respect there is limited information on Clostera restitura, one of the most destructive defoliators of poplars in China. In the present study, we first identified seven candidate CSPs in C. restitura. Sequence alignment and phylogenetic analysis showed that these candidate proteins possessed typical characteristics of the insect CSP family and were similar to those of other Lepidoptera. These genes were expressed in different developmental stages and tissues, and the levels of expression differed after mating. Some CresCSPs were more associated with development and others with mating. They may play an important role in host recognition, egg development and mating behaviour. Furthermore, the CSPs were ubiquitously detected in all tissues and most of them were highly expressed in antennae, especially female antennae. We suggest the CresCSPs may contribute to female oviposition site recognition. CresCSPs that are highly transcribed in wings and legs, may function in gustation. This study provides a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms of olfaction in C. restitura and environmentally friendly pest management strategy for controlling C. restitura.

We evaluated the efficacy of four entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) and their compatibility with the bioinsecticide spinosad for control of Ephestia kuehniella (Zeller) under laboratory conditions. Three EPF, including Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo-Criveili) Vuillemin isolates Z1 and Iran 1395C, Lecanicillium (= Verticillium) lecanii (Zimmerman) Zare & Gams, isolate Iran 229, and Purpureocillium (Paecilomyces) lilacinum (Thom) Luangs-ard, Hywel-Jones & Samson, isolate Iran 1026 were tested against third and fifth larval instars of Ephestia kuehniella using a filter paper bioassay. Mortality caused by the EPF ranged from 63.3-72.5% for third instars and 50-65.5% for fifth instars, with LT₅₀ ranging from 8.4-10.5 d and 10.1-12.9 d, respectively. The effect of spinosad at LC₁₀ (= 26.2 ppm) on EPF spore germination was evaluated and found to be negligible, ranging from 0% for B. bassiana Z1 to 5.7% for P. lilacinum. The LC₅₀ values for spinosad against third and fifth instar E. kuehniella larvae were 452.5 and 1446 ppm, respectively. Subsequently, spinosad at LC₁₀ was applied to third instar E. kuehniella larvae 24 h before application of the EPFs at LC₅₀. The addition of spinosad to applications of L. lecanii and B. bassiana Z1 and Iran1395C isolates synergized their pathogenicity to E. kuehniella larvae, whereas the effect was merely additive for P. lilacinum. Our results suggest that these EPF isolates can be used effectively in combination with spinosad for management of E. kuehniella in stored products.

Spring and summer composition and species richness of bruchid pre-dispersal seed predator assemblages associated with species of leguminous plants were monitored in a four-year non-experimental survey of 32 service areas along five highways in Hungary. The vegetation bands along highways (delimited by fences) were considered a special type of ecotone where herbaceous plants are exposed to regular mowing and therefore the composition of the vegetation there is very different from the adjacent vegetation. Altogether 57 herbaceous and woody species of leguminous plants were recorded at these sites, harbouring 20 autochthonous, 3 allochthonous, but established, and 4 recently introduced species of bruchid seed predators (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae). The species of leguminous plants recorded along highway verges during this project make up approximately one fourth of the Fabaceae in Hungary and of the bruchids ca. 80 % (!) of the species known to occur in Hungary. At half of the service areas, mowing decreased the species richness of leguminous plants compared to that recorded prior to mowing, but not that of their bruchid seed predators. However, the species composition of the bruchid assemblages before and after mowing changed substantially. Null-model analyses indicated a random organization of spring assemblages and a deterministic one of summer assemblages of bruchids; very likely a result of host-specificity constraints. Calculations of host specificity confirmed the narrow host range recorded for bruchids that emerged from the samples of plants, in spite of new host records, such as three and two Trifolium species for Bruchidius picipes and Bi. sp. prope varius sensu Anton, respectively, Oxytropis pilosa for Bi. marginalis and Vicia cracca for Bruchus brachialis. Our results show that a surprisingly high number of species of bruchids occur in highway margins, however, the management of the vegetation there prevents a substantial portion of the native bruchid fauna establishing permanent populations.

Because it is an important pest of rice, Abidama liuensis Metcalf is well documented in terms of its bioecology and control. However, there are few studies on the biology of this pest. In this study, a technique was developed for rearing this insect under laboratory conditions (26 ± 2°C; 75 ± 3% RH; and 12L : 12D photoperiod) and its immature stages are described. Egg development is divided into four stages, of which S1 took the longest time (accounting for 11.70% of total developmental time); 90% of the eggs that completed S2, hatched. Nymphal instars can be distinguished by body size, colour and other morphological features. Total developmental period of immature stages was approximately 50 d, with the averages of the five stadia 5.18, 4.33, 5.28, 10.41 and 8.5 days, respectively. Using this rearing technique, it is possible to rear A. liuensis throughout the year, which will facilitate further ecological, behavioural and molecular studies and the development of ways of controlling this insect in the field.

The painted lady, Vanessa cardui (Linnaeus, 1758), migrates seasonally between Africa and Europe with a northward multigenerational migration from Africa to Europe in spring and a southward migration from Europe to Africa in autumn. However, little is known about the year-round phenology of this species in southern regions in the Mediterranean Basin. In this study the year-round phenology and reproduction of painted ladies was recorded during a seven-year period (2014-2020) at 7 lowland sites (< 80 m a.s.l) near the coast of Cádiz (southern Spain). Overall, a total of 2341 painted lady butterflies (or 0.56 butterflies/km) were recorded along 4186 km of transects of the Butterfly Monitoring Scheme (BMS). Data pooled for all sites and years indicate a migration of painted ladies in autumn (mid and late October), another peak in abundance in winter (late February) and finally a migration in spring (late May). Abundance, however, varied greatly between sites and years. In July 2019, a spectacular migration of painted ladies was recorded across the study area that was also recorded in other European countries a few weeks later. Territorial behaviour of males, including hill-topping and courtship, oviposition and immature stages were recorded in autumn and winter. Reproductive behaviour was not recorded in spring or summer. Painted ladies were most abundant during the autumn migration, less abundant in spring and much less abundant in winter. This study confirms that the southern tip of Western Europe close to North Africa is an important stop-over region during the migration of painted ladies although numbers fluctuate enormously between years and sites. To my knowledge, this is the first time that the timing of year-round migration and the reproduction of painted ladies in the autumn-winter months have been described for a southern European population.

Insects are solely dependent on an innate immune system. Antimicrobial peptide production is the main immune response of insects. The molecular mechanisms underlying this reaction in Drosophila melanogaster involves the induction of antimicrobial peptide genes, which is regulated by the Toll and IMD pathways. The Toll pathway is mainly activated by fungi or Gram-positive bacteria and the IMD pathway by Gram-negative bacteria. In terms of comparative immunology, we investigated the antimicrobial peptide production system in the beetle, Tribolium castaneum, which differs from that in D. melanogaster. To obtain a more detailed understanding, we examined whether Pelle and Tube, orthologues of which in D. melanogaster are the Toll pathway components, contributed to antimicrobial peptide production and immune reactions. These two genes were not induced by challenges from any type of microbe, which in this case were Gram-positive bacteria, -negative bacteria and an eukaryote. Using Pelle and Tube knockdown pupae, it was demonstrated that Pelle and Tube are involved in the induction of Cec2 as a representative Toll pathway-dependent gene in T. castaneum by Gram-positive and -negative bacteria and eukaryote challenges. Furthermore, neither Pelle nor Tube contributed to immune defences against two entomopathogenic bacteria. These results, taken together with our previous findings, led to the conclusion that the Toll pathway immune signaling reported in D. melanogaster indeed occurs in T. castaneum, and the gene sets involved in Toll signal transduction in T. castaneum did not differ significantly from those in D. melanogaster, but transduced immune signals to challenges from Gram-positive bacteria, -negative bacteria and an eukaryote, which differed from those in D. melanogaster.

The hemipteran infraorder Cicadomorpha (cicadas, leafhoppers, treehoppers and spittlebugs) comprises more than 30,000 described extant species in 3,783 genera, 13 families and 3 superfamilies: Cicadoidea, Cercopoidea and Membracoidea. Here, we summarize and discuss data on the number of testicular follicles in 103 species belonging to 84 genera and 9 families of Cicadoidea (Tettigarctidae and Cicadidae), Cercopoidea (Aphrophoridae, Cercopidae and Ischnorhinidae) and Membracoidea (Aetalionidae, Cicadellidae, Membracidae and Myerslopiidae), as well as the number of ovarioles in 65 species belonging to 56 genera of the same families, except for Tettigarctidae, Aetalionidae, and Myerslopiidae, for which no such data were available. Almost 83% of the species and 81% of the genera studied belong to the family Cidadellidae. In general, the number of follicles in Cicadomorpha ranges from 1 to "about 100 or more" per testis, and the number of ovarioles from 3 to over 70-80 per ovary. The highest numbers are characteristic of Cicadoidea and Cercopoidea, with significantly higher values in the former superfamily. In Membracoidea, both follicle and ovariole numbers vary within markedly narrower limits. Most taxa are dominated by testes each consisting of 6 follicles, and the ovaries each consisting of 6 ovarioles. These character states are considered ancestral for Cicadomorpha, and possibly for Auchenorrhyncha as a whole.

Scientists and society are increasingly becoming aware of loss of insect biodiversity and biomass. The level of biodiversity determines the efficiency of ecological communities to capture essential resources, produce biomass, decompose and recycle nutrients. Relationships between plant and insect diversity can be modified by changes in insect abundance. This study determined the associations between microclimate and diversity of forest plants on overall insect abundance and abundances of different insect orders in the canopy of temperate deciduous forests dominated by Fagus sylvatica L. (European beech; Fagaceae) in Central Germany. Following model selection, a linear mixed model was used to analyse the associations between abiotic factors (air temperature and relative humidity) as well as biotic factors (species richness and cover for the ground, shrub and tree layer) and insect abundance and abundances of insect orders. Within similar strength of evidence, best models were chosen as those with a single explanatory parameter. Significant associations were recorded between abundances of Lepidoptera and Neuroptera and relative air humidity, insect abundance and species richness in the shrub layer, and between abundances of Diptera and Psocoptera and percentage cover of shrubs. Trends in associations were detected between the abundance of Hemiptera and species richness recorded in the shrub layer, and between the abundance of Thysanoptera and the species richness in the ground layer. No significant associations with single explanatory parameters were recorded for the abundances of Coleoptera and Hymenoptera. Phytodiversity, especially that in the shrub layer, were more often associated with the abundances of insect orders than microclimatic factors. The potential importance of the association between shrub layer parameters and the abundance of insects might be based on the shrub layer combining the associations with the ground layer (bottom-up processes) and canopy layer (environmental conditions). In addition, associations between phytodiversity and abundance of insects seem to vary most for Coleoptera and Hymenoptera in which there are markedly different functional groups.

Spodoptera frugiperda damages crops around the world and has developed resistance to many pesticides. Beauveria bassiana, a fungus that is harmless to humans and the environment, is widely used in pest control. In our study, differentially expressed genes between S. frugiperda larvae, both exposed and unexposed, to B. bassiana were analyzed by transcriptome sequencing. More than 160 Gb of clean data were obtained, and 2767 and 2892 DEGs were identified in LH36vsCK36 and LH144vsCK144, respectively. To explore the roles of glycometabolism and antioxidation-related enzyme genes in S. frugiperda against B. bassiana infection, the expression patterns of those genes when under attack from B. bassiana were analyzed by quantitative real-time PCR. The results of enzyme activity experiments revealed that S. frugiperda larvae exposed to B. bassiana could upregulate these genes to produce more enzymes related to the maintainance of normal glucose metabolism, as well as regulate the expression of detoxification and antioxidant factors to enhance the larvae's detoxification and antioxidant capacity. The result implied that glycometabolism and antioxidation-related enzymes and genes played critical roles in the antifungal immune process of S. frugiperda larvae. This study enhances our understanding of the molecular mechanisms related to regulation of metabolism and provides a basis for exploring new methods to combat antifungal resistance in S. frugiperda.

The field cricket, Scapsipedus icipe Hugel and Tanga (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) is edible and could be used to reduce malnutrition in Sub-Saharan Africa. As the demand for cricket products is increasing, there is a need to find cost-effective ways of rearing this cricket using locally available and affordable sources of food. This study evaluated the feeding preferences of the field cricket S. icipe for 11 species of dayflowers (Commelina spp.; Commelinaceae), using no-choice and multiple-choice experiments in controlled environments. Leaf feeding rates and the nutrient content and phytochemicals of the plants were determined. The ANOVA results indicate significantly higher feeding rates when offered Commelina petersii and C. forskaolii, than Commelina sp. and C. purpurea in no-choice experiments. Multiple-choice experiments ranked C. petersii as the most preferred species followed by C. forskaolii and the two reference species, C. benghalensis var. benghalensis (non-hybrid variant) and C. benghalensis (hybrid variant). The Spearman correlation and PCA revealed positive significant associations between leaf feeding and Ca and NDF content of leaves and a negative significant association between Ca and NDF. A high Ca/low NDF content was recorded for C. petersii and a low Ca/high NDF content for C. purpurea. The beta regression analysis and a biplot identified six phytochemical constituents influencing leaf feeding: phenols, alkaloids, tannins, glycosides, saponins and anthraquinones. Phenols stimulate feeding by S. icipe on C. petersii and C. forskaolii, whereas the tannins and alkaloids in Commelina sp. and C. purpurea, acted as deterrents. Nutrient content and phytochemicals are two important factors determining the suitability of species of Commelina for the field cricket S. icipe. Based on the results of this study, the leaves of C. petersii are highly recommended as a source of food for the mass rearing of this field cricket (S. icipe) and boosting entomophagy in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Harvester ants are known to be species that collect seeds of plants and store them in underground chambers. Workers forage solitarily or in groups, and the intensity of their foraging depends, among other things, on the rate of food intake. To evaluate the efficiency of foraging in response to food distribution, we studied the foraging rate on different distributions of seeds in three species of the genus Messor, M. barbarus (Linnaeus, 1767), M. marocanus Santschi, 1927 and M. sanctus Emery, 1921. Foraging rates were higher on more clumped seed distributions in all studied colonies. The number of foragers did not influence the foraging behavior of these colonies in response to seed distribution. Monitoring the foraging rate over time revealed that it remains stable for all three species, except for the initial and final stages of bait consumption. Additionally, M. marocanus collected seeds from several sources simultaneously, whereas the other two species collected seeds from one resource at a time.

Continuous cover forestry is a silvicultural system designed to mimic natural forest dynamics and maintain the structure of uneven-aged semi-natural forests. One of the key steps in this approach is to create small gaps in the canopy by logging small groups of trees or individual trees. In gap-cutting, the main goal is to determine the optimal shape and size of these gaps in order to ensure spontaneous natural regeneration of the major tree species in the canopy. Yet, it remains relatively unknown how various arthropods respond to such forestry practices. Carabid beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) play an important role as predators of various small invertebrates and their predators are mostly vertebrates. The interactions between carabids and their predators might change due to shifts in the distribution of patches of suitable habitat as a result of forest management. Here, the aim was to determine whether gaps in the canopy of two different sizes (small vs. large) and shapes (circular vs. elongated) can affect the predation pressure on large carabids in a Hungarian oak-hornbeam forest. Using 3D-printed decoys of the largest common carabid in the area, Carabus coriaceus, placed in each of the four gap treatments and control plots, the seasonal, diurnal, and treatment-specific aspects of predation pressure was estimated. This revealed no significant effects of any of the variables included in this study, which indicates that predation pressure in undisturbed controls located in closed forests and small canopy gaps did not differ significantly. Creating gaps in the canopy by felling few trees seems to be a good strategy for maintaining the forest ecological network with minimal disruption compared clear-felling large areas.

To analyse the phylogenetic relationships of members of the family Erebidae, the mitogenomes of two species namely, Hypospila bolinoides Guenée, 1852 and Lygephila dorsigera (Walker, 1865) were sequenced. H. bolinoides and L. dorsigera have circular genomes that are 15,640 bp and 15,567 bp long, respectively. Despite their different lengths, both genomes contain an identical gene order, which includes 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 22 tRNA genes, two rRNA genes and an A+T-rich region. The nucleotide composition of the H. bolinoides mitogenome vis-à-vis the A+T rich region was 80.08%, which is higher than that of L. dorsigera (78.03%). The AT skew and GC skew were mostly negative for both species. The A+T-rich regions of H. bolinoides and L. dorsigera were 287 bp and 383 bp long, respectively, and confined to common characteristics of Noctuoidea. Concatenated sequences of 13 PCGs from 170 taxa belonging to the five families of the superfamily Noctuoidea and two butterfly mitogenomes used as outgroups were utilized for Bayesian inference (BI) and Maximum Likelihood (ML) analyses. The first-ever comprehensive analysis of the mitogenomes of the genera Lygephila (Billberg, 1820) and Hypospila (Guenée, 1852) revealed that the superfamily Noctuoidea has a well supported monophyletic relationship with (Notodontidae + (Erebidae + (Nolidae + (Euteliidae + Noctuidae))). In support of previous partial genome analyses, the present study provides phylogenomic evidence that L. dorsigera, hitherto classified as a member of the subfamily Erebinae, can be placed within the subfamily Toxocampinae.