Field and laboratory experiments were conducted to assess the time ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) survive during actual and simulated flood conditions. The effects of three variants of potential flood conditions were tested: (1) beetles trapped on the surface of flood water; (2) beetles trapped in air pockets; (3) submersion of beetles in flood water without access to air. Ground beetles trapped on the surface of water survived more than two weeks (Carabus granulatus - up to 16 days; Oxypselaphus obscurus - up to 22 days). Carabus granulatus in simulated hibernation chambers that had air-pockets also survived for 15 days. The time for which ground beetles submerged without access to air survived differed significantly among species and was affected by season. They survived longest in mid-spring and late-autumn when water temperature is low. In mid-spring, survival times for C. granulatus and Platynus assimilis were 12 days and 9 days, respectively. During late summer and early autumn all species survived for a shorter period of time. In August, at least half of the individuals tested were dead after three days of immersion (water temperature 16-18°C). Removal of both of the elytra of adult of C. granulatus resulted in them surviving immersion for a shorter period, which indicates that air stored in the sub-elytral cavity is used to prolong the period they can survive immersion. The results of these experiments broaden the knowledge of how adult beetles survive seasonal flooding and are able to persist in floodplain habitats.

There are few studies on the morphology and meiosis in the testicles of Heteroptera, but are extremely important, especially for the family Pentatomidae, because in some species in this family meiosis in the testicular lobes results in the production of non-fertile spermatozoa. With the aim of improving the level of understanding of this phenomenon the morphology of the testes and spermatogenesis in 10 species of Pentatomidae were recorded and compared. All of them have testes covered by a pigmented peritoneal sheath. In some species the internal membrane or just inside the peritoneal sheath is pigmented. The pigmentation of both membranes varied. The pigmentation of both was either yellow, or the internal membrane was yellowish and the external one reddish. When the membrane is pigmented, the colour is red or yellow. The number of lobes varied from 3 to 7, with intermediate numbers of 4 and 6. The size and diameter of the lobes are similar in all the species studied, except Proxys albopunculatus, in which the diameter of the third and fifth is smaller than that of the other lobes. The behaviour of the cells during spermatogenesis was the same in all lobes of most species, except in P. albopunctulatus, in which the harlequin lobe is absent and the cells in lobes 4 and 6 exhibited characteristics different from those of cells in lobes 1-3 and 5. Chlorocoris complanatus and Loxa deducta (both Pentatominae) have a harlequin lobe (lobe 5). The chromosome complements recorded were: 2n = 12 (10A + XY) in Dichelops melacanthus and Edessa collaris, 2n = 14 (12A + XY) in C. complanatus, Edessa meditabunda, Ladeaschistus sp., Loxa deducta, P. albopunctulatus, Piezodorus guildinii and Thyanta perditor and 2n = 16 (14A + XY) in Edessa affinis. Thus, this study extends the knowledge of characteristics, such as the pigmentation of the peritoneal sheath, number of testicular lobes, the occurrence of meiotic cells in some testicular lobes, and the chromosome complements of the family Pentatomidae.

The creation of improved areas is one way of increasing the productivity of livestock on Cantabrian heathland (NW Spain), a habitat that is frequently located in less favourable mountainous areas where the development of sustainable husbandry is limited. The effect of this on the biodiversity of heathland is unclear and likely to depend on several factors, such as the grazing regime. In order to clarify this situation, the effects of type of vegetation, species of grazer and grazing regime on the composition of the ground-dwelling arthropod fauna of partially improved heathland were determined. The effects of grazing by cattle or sheep and two grazing regimes (cattle or sheep, or both of them together with goats) were studied in eight plots (two replicates per treatment). Each plot included two types of vegetation, gorse (Ulex gallii)-dominated shrubland and improved grassland (Lolium perenne-Trifolium repens). Arthropods were surveyed using pitfall traps. Overall, the composition of the arthropod fauna did not differ between plots grazed by different species of grazer or using different grazing regimes but was significantly associated with the type of vegetation. Most of the opilionids and several carabids clearly preferred shrubland, while lycosids and various carabids were mainly associated with grassland. While the species of grazer affected the faunal composition of grassland, grazing regime was more important in shrubland. Arthropod responses to the grazing treatments were determined by the grazing behaviour of the large herbivores and the habitat requirements of each arthropod taxon. The great structural heterogeneity of the vegetation and the more microhabitats in shrubland grazed by mixed flocks was mainly a result of the goats preferring to browse on the woody vegetation in these areas. The grazing by either sheep or cattle had less of an affect on the fauna of shrubland than grassland.

The pattern of postglacial re-colonization of Europe and the present population structure are known for various plant and animal species. The reed beetle Macroplea mutica (Fabricius, 1792) has characteristics that should influence both aspects in a peculiar way and therefore complement the currently known scenarios: It is fully aquatic but cannot swim or fly. Samples from 25 European populations of M. mutica and five specimens from China were investigated using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP, 251 loci). Assessment of error rates associated with this method showed that the data set contains a strong population genetic signal. As hypothesized pronounced population differentiation and signs of inbreeding were found. Italian populations are clearly differentiated from northern populations (and from each other), which underlines the role of the Alps as a major barrier. Specimens from Lake Balaton (Hungary) show some affiliation with the populations in the Baltic Sea, which are all relatively similar. Populations from the eastern part of Northern Germany are similar to the Baltic populations, while those from the western part are allied to the British populations. The hypothesis is that the recolonization of Europe was from both the Southeast and a western refugium in the area of present-day southern England or Ireland, which resulted in a suture zone in Northern Germany. The effect of passive dispersal by drift attached to host plant material (especially in the Baltic Sea) and by zoochory (migrating waterfowl) is discussed.

Age of host eggs can be a limiting factor for egg parasitoids. It is expected that old eggs are less preferred by egg parasitoids, which can discriminate between eggs of different ages by using chemical cues. The objective of this study was to determine the preference, development and arrestment of Telenomus remus Nixon (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) parasitizing Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) eggs of different ages. This egg parasitoid preferred to parasitize 1- and 2-day-old eggs rather than 3-day-old eggs in choice and no-choice assays. However, although the percentage emergence of parasitoids is significantly lower from 2- and 3-day-old eggs, the sex ratio and developmental time are unaffected. Parasitoids spent longer searching substrates impregnated with extracts of 1- and 2-day old eggs than 3-day-old eggs. Our results reveal that T. remus is able to distinguish the most suitable (1-day-old) from the least suitable (3-day-old) host eggs, but unable to recognize the unsuitability of intermediate aged eggs. Egg arrestants may be responsible for the preference of T. remus for ovipositing in 1- and 2-day old eggs.

We used butterfly assemblages to evaluate the ecological value of habitat mosaics within garrigue ecosystems in Cyprus. To understand the importance of the local plant communities for Cypriot butterflies, five plots in each of two habitat types (grass-dominated or shrub-dominated) were surveyed weekly for a period of five months in order to assess the abundance, species richness and diversity of butterflies. A total of 810 butterflies of 16 species were recorded. Indices of butterfly diversity, calculated across the whole season, were similar between grassland and shrubland dominated mosaics. However, species richness of all butterflies was consistently higher in grassland dominated mosaics throughout the whole season. The peak abundance of all butterfly species occurred during mid-season (late April - early May), with similar numbers observed in both habitat types. However, a greater abundance was observed during early and late season in grassland patches. The abundance of endemic species (Maniola cypricola, Hipparchia cypriensis, Glaucopsyche paphos) peaked earlier in the season in shrubland patches, but was higher in grassland patches in late season. This difference in seasonal timing of endemic abundance was dominated by the seasonal dynamics of M. cypricola. These results suggest that, while garrigue is characterised by its shrub flora, management to maintain a mosaic of grassland and shrubland could act to maximise the abundance and richness of indicator species groups of conservation importance.

A new genus and new species, Angulonotus grisescens, is described from Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan and its taxonomic placement within the tribe Orthotylini is discussed. Illustrations of male and female genitalia, micrographs of selected characters, photographs of dorsal habitus, hosts and distributional records of this new taxon are provided. Comparisons are made with species of the genus Hyoidea Reuter, 1876.

Warmer temperatures in the past 30 years have significantly influenced the seasonal development of insects throughout Europe. As a result of the outbreaks of black flies that have occurred in southeastern Lithuania since the 1970s it is hypothesized that this increase in black fly activity is due to the change in climate. To test this hypothesis the development of Simulium maculatum Meigen under different conditions was determined. This revealed that the time of hatching of S. maculatum eggs in Lithuania was influenced by winter air temperatures, especially those in March. Pupation in S. maculatum is associated with the increase in air and water temperatures that occur at the end of April and in May. The emergence of S. maculatum black flies occurs most often in May. At a water temperature of 13.2°C (1999), S. maculatum took 42 days to develop and half this time (21 days) when the water temperature was 18.8°C (2005). The number of black flies that emerged each year was determined by air temperature but unaffected by rainfall in June (either per month or per ten-day period).

Pyridoxal kinase (PLK; EC 2.7.1.35) is a key enzyme in the metabolism of vitamin B₆ (VB₆) in Bombyx mori. A fusion expressional vector pET-22b-BPLK-His was constructed using a sub-cloning technique, the recombinant B. mori PLK was then expressed in Escherichia coli, purified and characterized. Bioinformatics were used to deduce the protein structure and genomic organization of this enzyme. Using Ni Sepharose affinity column chromatography, the recombinant protein was purified to very high degree (approximately 90%). The recombinant PLK exhibits a high specific enzymatic activity (1800 nmol/min/mg of protein). The maximum catalytic activity of this enzyme was recorded over a narrow pH range (5.5-6.0) and Zn²⁺ is the most effective cation for catalysis under saturating substrate concentrations. When only triethanolamine is present as the cation, K⁺ is an activator of PLK. A double reciprocal plot of initial velocity suggests that the enzyme catalyses the reaction by means of a sequential catalytic mechanism. Under optimal conditions, the Km value for the substrates of ATP and pyridoxal are 57.9 ± 5.1 and 44.1 ± 3.9 µM. B. mori's genome contains a single copy of the PLK gene, which is 7.73 kb long and contains five exons and four introns, and is located on the eighth chromosome. The PLK may be a dimer with two identical subunits under native conditions, and it is hypothesized that each monomer contains eight α-helices (α1-8), nine β-strands (β1-9) and two segments of 3₁₀ helices.

In Europe there are only a few species of the syrphid fly Microdon, which live in the nests of various genera of ants. For most of these rare flies, details of their biology, larval behaviour and relationships with their hosts are still not yet well known. In this paper we present data on the life cycle, feeding behaviour and growth pattern of Microdon myrmicae, a social parasite of Myrmica ants and compare it with two species of Maculinea butterflies similarly parasitizing Myrmica ant colonies. M. myrmicae has three larval instars and overwinters as a third instar. Eggs and 1^st instar larvae are ignored by ants, which indicate that they are "chemically insignificant". 2^nd and 3^rd instar larvae feed on small ant brood. M.myrmicae larvae grow rapidly from May to July and later in the year the host colony only serves as shelter for overwintering. Like Maculinea alcon, larvae of M. myrmicae are numerous in Myrmica nests and more numerous than those of Maculinea teleius. Since the larvae of Microdon feed on an abundance of young ant brood, they experience low level of scramble competition and although many may develop in an ant's nest they have probably little effect on host colony fitness.

The external morphology of Aphylidae was studied previously in detail by the two junior authors, including the description of unique derived structures formed by their lateral thoracico-abdominal region (the exponium). Here we provide an additional description of the external scent efferent system of the metathoracic scent glands of species in the genus Aphylum Bergroth, 1906 (based on scanning electron microscope study) and its connection with an autapomorphic aphylid thoracico-abdominal region, the exponium. The origins of exponial sclerites are discussed and function of the exponium is hypothesised as being part of a complex defensive mechanism in the Aphylidae.

Although there is a considerable amount of information on the ecology, genetics and physiology of life-history traits there is little information on the morphological variations associated with flight ability within species. In this paper, the morphology and ultrastructure of certain organelles in the flight muscles of Gryllus firmus are recorded using transmission electron microscopy. The ultrastructure of the flight muscles of 7-day-old female adults reveals that the ratio of thick to thin filaments is 1 : 3. Each thick filament is surrounded by 6 thin filaments in a hexagonal arrangement. The length of the sarcomere of each myofibril is significantly shorter and diameter of the myofibrils significantly smaller in long-winged than in short-winged morphs. However, the thick filaments in the long-winged morph are denser than those in the short-winged morph. Furthermore, in the long winged morph there are a greater number of mitochondria than in the short-winged morph. These differences correspond with the fact that long-winged crickets are stronger fliers than short-winged crickets.

A gut-specific chitinase gene was cloned from the mulberry longicorn beetle, Apriona germari. The A. germari chitinase (AgChi) gene spans 2894 bp and consists of five introns and six exons coding for 390 amino acid residues. AgChi possesses the chitinase family 18 active site signature and three N-glycosylation sites. Southern blot analysis of genomic DNA suggests that AgChi is a single copy gene. The AgChi cDNA was expressed as a 46-kDa polypeptide in baculovirus-infected insect Sf9 cells and the recombinant AgChi showed activity in a chitinase enzyme assay. Treatment of recombinant virus-infected Sf9 cells with tunicamycin, a specific inhibitor of N-linked glycosylation, revealed that AgChi is N-glycosylated, but the carbohydrate moieties are not essential for chitinolytic activity. Northern and Western blot analyses showed that AgChi was specifically expressed in the gut; AgChi was expressed in three gut regions, indicating that the gut is the prime site for AgChi synthesis in A. germari larvae.

Two glutathione S-transferase (GST) cDNAs, GSTD2 and GSTS2, were cloned from the silkworm Bombyx mori. The B. mori GSTD2 (BmGSTD2) gene spans 4371 bp and consists of four introns and five exons that encode 222 amino acid residues. The deduced amino acid sequence of BmGSTD2 showed 58% protein sequence identity to the Delta-class GST of Maduca sexta. The B. mori GSTS2 (BmGSTS2) gene spans 3470 bp and consists of three introns and four exons that encode 206 amino acid residues. The deduced amino acid sequence of BmGSTS2 revealed 67%, 63%, and 61% protein sequence identities to the Sigma-class GSTs from B. mori, Platynota idaeusalis, and M. sexta, respectively. The BmGSTD2 and BmGSTS2 cDNAs were expressed as 25 kDa and 23 kDa polypeptides, respectively, in baculovirus-infected insect Sf9 cells. Northern blot and Western blot analyses showed that BmGSTD2 and BmGSTS2 were specifically expressed in three gut regions, indicating that the gut is the prime site for BmGSTD2 and BmGSTS2 synthesis in B. mori larvae.

The bug family Nabidae (Heteroptera) includes taxa showing either a low chromosome number 2n = 16 + XY or high chromosome numbers 2n = 26 or 32 + XY. In order to reveal the direction of karyotype evolution in the family, a molecular phylogeny of the family was created to reveal the taxon closest to the ancestral type and hence the ancestral karyotype. The phylogeny was based on a partial sequence of the 18S rDNA gene of both high and low chromosome number species belonging to the subfamilies Prostemmatinae and Nabinae. Phylogeny created by the Neighbour Joining method separated the subfamilies, Prostemmatinae and Nabinae, which form sister groups at the base of this phylogenetic tree, as well as within the Nabinae, tribes Nabini and Arachnocorini. Combining karyosystematic data with the phylogeny of the family indicated that the ancestral karyotype was a high chromosome number, consisting of 2n = 32 + XY. During the course of evolution changes have occurred both in meiotic behaviour of the sex chromosomes and in the number of autosomes. The direction of karyotype evolution was from a high to low autosome number. Abrupt decreases in the number of autosomes have occurred twice; firstly when the tribe Arachnocorini differentiated from the main stem in the subfamily Nabinae and secondly within the tribe Nabini, when within the genus Nabis 2n = 16 + XY species diverged from the 2n = 32 + XY species. A scheme of the sequence of events in karyotype evolution during the evolution of the Nabidae is presented.

Adjacivena rasnitsyni gen. n., sp. n., from the Middle Jurassic Jiulongshan Formation (Daohugou Village, Inner Mongolia, China), is described based on a set of well-preserved specimens, interpreted as two females and a male of the same species. The new taxon is assigned to the family Susumaniidae, i.e. is a candidate stem-Phasmatodea. This ordinal assignment is supported by genital elements, chiefly a putative operculum concealing the ovipositor observed in one female specimen and a putative extension of the 10^th tergum with a thorn pad in the male specimen. Variation in the venation of the forewing is appreciated based on more or less complete pairs of wings and a comparison with that in the forewings of male Heteropteryx dilatata (Parkinson, 1798). This material offers new perspectives on the primary homologies of the hind wing venation of stick-insects.

The occurrence of colour polymorphism in wild populations of the necrophagous fly Prochyliza nigrimana (Diptera: Piophilidae) is recorded but never treated in detail. The present paper shows that there is a seasonal distribution in the morphotypes, with the dark morphs emerging in spring and pale morphs emerging later and most abundant in summer. Furthermore, different proportions of each morph occur along altitudinal gradients, with dark morphs significantly more abundant at low altitudes, where mean temperatures are warmer than at high altitudes where the pale coloured morphs were more abundant. Explanations based on the adaptive value of thermal melanism are discussed.

Golf is a popular sport, with increasingly large areas of urban and peri-urban land being designated for golf course development. Yet, more than half of the land area of a typical golf course is considered rough and out-of-play areas that can, if managed appropriately, provide habitats for wildlife. Using pitfall traps, 6944 carabid beetles belonging to 72 species were collected from five urban golf courses and three areas designated for golf course development around the city of Helsinki, Finland in 2007. The courses were rich in carabid species and distinct in their species assemblages. Golf courses were dominated by habitat generalists, species capable of flight and medium to large-sized species. The three courses with areas designated for further golf course development showed that the assemblages of beetles associated with these golf courses have retained many elements from the pre-existing habitats. The oldest golf course is characterised by a more evenly distributed and diverse carabid beetle assemblage, probably due to its higher habitat heterogeneity and longer successional development. However, even this golf course is dominated by generalist species, implying that golf courses may not provide suitable habitats for specialists. It is assumed that the high species richness of golf courses is attributed to the high habitat diversity of these environments, ranging from the strongly human-modified to more natural patches, which provide habitats for many generalist and open-habitat species. Golf courses may, however, with the appropriate management of out-of-play areas provide an opportunity for conserving biodiversity.

The multicoloured Asian lady beetle Harmonia axyridis (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) may potentially exploit a range of "alternative" food sources. The nutritional value of three common non-prey food groups, i.e. fruit, fungi and pollen, is examined in this study. Development, reproduction and survival of the species were assessed in the laboratory on diets of apple, pear and raspberries and the fungi Oidium lycopersicum, Botrytis cinerea, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Rhizoctonia solani. When fed exclusively on these foods this ladybird failed to complete its development or reproduce. However, larval and adult survival was prolonged by 4 to 8 days and 55 to 67 days, respectively, when fruit was offered compared with only water. During a field study H. axyridis adults were collected monthly from March to October at two locations near Ghent, Belgium. Gut analysis demonstrated that, despite the continued presence of aphids, over 90% of all the adults collected contained pollen throughout the year. The pollen belonged to 53 different pollen types. Monthly average numbers of pollen grains in the gut varied from 5 to 233 grains. In contrast, there were about 35,000 grains in the guts of H. axyridis females that successfully developed and reproduced in the laboratory on diet that consisted of only pollen. This suggests that in the field in the majority of cases pollinivory mainly only provided complementary nutrients for this coccinellid. The use of alternative non-prey foods like pollen and fruit may play a role in sustaining populations of this coccinellid at times when the optimal prey is absent.

We investigated the ability of females of the aphidophagous chrysopids Chrysopa oculata and Chrysopa perla to distinguish clean substrates from substrates with tracks of chrysopid first instars after ablation of various sensory organs potentially involved in the detection of oviposition-deterring semiochemicals (ODSCs). Also studied were effects of storage time on the degree of oviposition deterrence of substrates contaminated by larvae and by extracts of ODSC in intact females. C. oculata and C. perla laid significantly fewer eggs on substrates with conspecific larval tracks than on simultaneously provided clean substrates. Females of both chrysopids could perceive ODSCs solely through sense organs on the head. The oviposition of each species was significantly lower on contaminated than on clean substrates when any kind of sense organ on the head was completely removed, i.e. antennae, maxillary palpi, or labial palpi. C. oculata could still effectively differentiate substrates after ablation of both maxillary and labial palpi, indicating possible detection of volatiles via the antennae during flight. Only if all three pairs of sensory appendages were removed did females lay similar numbers of eggs on both substrates. In contrast, C. perla laid similar numbers of eggs on clean substrates and substrates with either conspecific or C. oculata larval tracks when maxillary and labial palpi were removed. Substrates with tracks of first instars of C. perla deterred C. oculata from oviposition after one year and conspecific females after 1.5 years from contamination. Both species laid significantly fewer eggs on substrates with tracks of C. oculata first instars than on clean substrates even after three years. Tracks of C. oculata third instars did not deter conspecific females more than tracks of first instars. ODSCs from tracks were easily extracted with water. Thus, precipitation is likely to reduce deterrent effects of contaminated plants. Chloroform extract from C. oculata first instars strongly deterred conspecific females from oviposition. Even after 725 days of storage, we found no statistically significant decline in the effect. The extract could be used to redirect egg laying from constructional parts of rearing cages to exchangeable oviposition substrates in mass rearing of chrysopids used for biological control. The hexane extract of third instars was inactive.

Apollo Books, Stenstrup, 224 pp., ISBN 87-88757-53-6. Price USD 89.50, DKK 420.00.

The pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae Burckhardt & Lauterer (Hemiptera: Psyllidae), is a major pest of pistachio trees throughout the pistachio producing regions in Iran. The effect of temperature on the developmental rates of eggs and nymphs of A. pistaciae was determined at different constant temperatures, i.e. 15, 20, 25, 30, 32.5 and 35 ± 0.5°C. The relationships between temperature and developmental rates were described by linear and the non-linear Lactin models. These models were evaluated based on R², RSS, AIC and R²_adj. The estimated value of the lower temperature threshold for egg, nymph and egg to adult development based on the linear model was 8.06, 10.38 and 9.97°C, respectively, and based on the Lactin model was 8, 11.55 and 11.2°C, respectively. Thermal constants estimated using the linear model, were 88.5, 243.90 and 333.33 DD, respectively, for egg, nymph and egg to adult development. These results indicate that the linear model gives a better description of the relationship between developmental rate and temperature for A. pistaciae than the non-linear model. These results could be incorporated into forecasting models used in the integrated pest management of this pest.

Chromosomes of the males of five species of Odontura, belonging to the subgenera Odontura and Odonturella, were analyzed. Intensive evolution of the karyotype was recorded, both in terms of changes in the numbers of chromosomes (from 2n = 31 to 27) and the sex chromosome system (from X0 to neo-XY and X0 to neo-X₁X₂Y). Karyotype evolution was accompanied by tandem autosome fusions and interspecific autosomal and sex chromosome differentiation involving changes in the locations of nucleolar organizer regions, NORs, which were revealed by silver impregnation and confirmed by FISH using an 18S rDNA probe. O. (Odonturella) aspericauda is a polytypic species with X0 and neo-X₁X₂Y sex determination. The latter system is not common in tettigoniids. It possibly originated by a translocation of a distal segment of the original X chromosome onto a medium sized autosome, resulting in a shortened neo-X₁ and a metacentric neo-Y. The remaining autosome homologue became the neo-X₂ chromosome. This shift from X0 to neo-X₁X₂Y is supported by the length of the X chromosome and location of the NOR/rDNA.

Effects of two adipokinetic hormones (Pyrap-AKH and Peram-CAH-II) on the presence of diacylglycerol (DG) molecular species and their fatty acid (FA) constituents in the haemolymph of the firebug Pyrrhocoris apterus were investigated using liquid chromatography (HPLC) and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). The results show that DGs with characteristic FAs are preferentially mobilized from the fat body (FB) by the action of both the AKHs produced by P. apterus. Both the macropterous and brachypterous morphs have similar DG and FA profiles. A difference in the action of the Pyrap-AKH and the Peram-CAH-II, however, results in distinct differences in the distribution of FAs in the macropterous morph. It seems that C16 to a slight extent and unsaturated C18 FAs mainly play a dominant role in the AKH based action, in particular linoleic acid (18:2), which represents 50-60% of the total DG mobilized. The metabolically active C16 and C18 FAs are preferentially absorbed from the linden seeds and accumulated in the FB. The relationships between AKH action and FA distribution in DGs in P. apterus, compared to other insect species are summarized and discussed in detail.

Calopteryx splendens is a widely distributed palaearctic damselfly with a remarkably uniform morphology. Variation in the size and shape of the pigmented spot on the wing is the main diagnostic character used to discriminate subspecies across its huge geographic range. Here, AFLP analysis was used to assess the genetic structure and diversity of nine populations representing 3 putative subspecies and evaluate the pigment spot as a taxonomic marker. Genetic diversity was high, with the number of polymorphic loci per population ranging from 141 to 280 out of a total of 333 variable sites (42.3-84.1%) and Nei's gene diversity from 0.160 to 0.283 (overall 0.299). Overall population genetic differentiation (F_ST = 0.2766) suggests limited gene flow and adaptation to local environments. Restricted gene flow and genetic differentiation among populations are supported by significant F_ST estimates. High levels of gene flow (N_m >1) were only recorded among three Asian populations (Russia - Kazakhstan - Turkey). The patterns of genotypic diversity suggest that a given wing spot size and shape may arise from the hybridization of a limited number, possibly not more than four, ancestral gene pools in different ways and at different times. Clearly, the sample analyzed was not sufficient to capture all of the complex history of C. splendens, but sufficient to indicate the taxa ancilla, waterstoni, and orientalis possibly represent three of the four ancestral gene pools, and originated in western Asia. The origin of the fourth, xanthostoma, is the western Mediterranean.

Heartbeat patterns were monitored in the living bodies of decapitated adult flies using several electrocardiographic methods (pulse-light optocardiography, thermocardiography, strain-gauge cardiography). Unlike other insect species, in which there is a peristaltic segmental propagation of cardiac contractions, Drosophila uses extremely efficient synchronic cardiac contractions. The rate of synchronic cardiac pulsation, which is characterized by simultaneous propagation of anterograde systolic contractions along all the segments of the heart, is relatively fast (~ 4 Hz at room temperature). This pulsation is used mainly for the vigorous pumping of haemolymph into the head and thorax through a narrow elastic tube, the aorta (anterograde I heartbeat). In addition, this synchronic pulsation is also used to enhance the circulation of haemolymph throughout the abdominal body cavity (anterograde II heartbeat). The switch between thoracic (anterograde I) and abdominal (anterograde II) haemolymph circulation is regulated by periodically alternating, tetanic contractions and relaxations of the conical heart chamber (ventricle). In the latter there is a pair of slit-like apertures, which are closed or opened by contraction or relaxation of the organ, respectively. During contraction of the conical chamber, the apertures are tightly constricted for several seconds and haemolymph is pumped forwards into the aorta (anterograde I heartbeat). Conversely, during relaxation of the conical chamber, the apertures are wide open for a few seconds, haemolymph leaves the heart and leaks out through open apertures and circulates from the tail to the base of the abdomen. The backward oriented, retrograde heartbeat recorded in other insects, has a lower frequency (1 to 2 Hz), occurs in Drosophila only sporadically and usually in the form of individual or twinned systolic peaks of large amplitude. Unlike the synchronic nature of the anterograde I and II cardiac contractions, propagation of the relatively slow retrograde heartbeat is by peristalsis. The newly discovered, compact ventricle with atrium and synchronic functioning of the insect heart shows structural and functional analogies with the functioning of the human heart.

The taxonomic status of the aphid parasitoid Aphidius colemani Viereck has been questioned, especially in regard to Aphidius transcaspicus Telenga (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). The genetic association between A. colemani and A. transcaspicus was studied by cross mating individuals of A. colemani and A. transcaspicus (A.c.& × A.t.% and A.c.% × A.t.&) and applying appropriate molecular methods. The cross mating resulted in offspring (female and males) that were fertile. Therefore, the cross mating assays performed in an artificial environment showed that these two populations are potentially compatible. The mean number of mummies that developed and the sex ratio of the offspring of each cross were similar. Most of the male and female offspring from each cross were assigned to A. transcaspicus. Furthermore, the genetic divergence between the ribosomal internal transcribed spacers (ITS2) of the A. colemani and A. transcaspicus studied was 16%. These results indicate that A. colemani might be a complex of species with different morphological and biological characters attacking different host aphids.

After the last glacial retreat in Europe, multiple recolonizations led to intraspecific differentiation in many of the recolonizing taxa. Here we investigate the genetic diversification across central Europe in two recolonizing taxa, the tephritid fruit flies Rhagoletis alternata (Fallén, 1814) and Carpomya schineri (Loew, 1856), which attack rose hips. Analysis of amplified and sequenced fragments of the mitochondrial genes encoding cytochrome oxidase I (800 bp), cytochrome oxidase II (470 bp) and cytochrome b (450 bp), indicate that all the individuals of R. alternata (n = 21) collected from across Europe share the same haplotype. Two individuals of C. schineri form Berlin, which is further north of the range than previously reported in the literature, differ from the other individuals (n = 13) in one nucleotide position on the cytochrome oxidase II gene fragment. This level of genetic variation in sequences with a summed length of 1720 bp is unexpectedly lower than in other insect taxa (n = 63). This might have been caused by a selective sweep by a cytoplasmic symbiont such as Wolbachia, or a recent range expansion associated with a host shift or a single recolonization event.

Life table data of natural enemies are often used to understand their population dynamics and estimate their potential role in the biological control of pests. Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) is an important pest of several crops and its intrinsic rate of population increase (r_m) is 0.282 at 22°C. The life table parameters (immature mortality, developmental time, sex ratio of emerging adults, fecundity and longevity) of Praon volucre (Haliday) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Aphidiinae) parasitizing M. euphorbiae were estimated in a climatic chamber at 22 ± 1°C, RH 70 ± 10% and 12 h photophase. Immature mortality was 8.2%, developmental time of males and females was 13.9 and 14.4 days, respectively, and the sex ratio was 0.55 (= fraction of females). Parasitoid fecundity was 504 eggs and longevity 11 days. The net rate of reproduction (R₀) was 207.5 females and the intrinsic rate of population increase (r_m) 0.281 females/female/day. The time for doubling the population (TD) was 2.45 weeks. P. volucre has a population growth rate similar to that of its host M. euphorbiae and might therefore be a good candidate for the biological control of this aphid.

Adults of the invasive harlequin ladybird, Harmonia axyridis (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), were found to be parasitized by nematodes (Tylenchomorpha: Allantonematidae) in Denmark. The nematodes were identified as Parasitylenchus sp. Major morphological characters of the nematodes did not differ significantly from Parasitylenchus coccinellinae Iperti & van Waerebeke 1968, but minor deviations in egg dimension and tail length were measured. Parasitism was only recorded in early autumn, with prevalence ranging from 2 to 33%. Adult and juvenile nematodes occurred together in the body cavity of both female and male H. axyridis.