Ovaries of Puto superbus and Ceroputo pilosellae are composed of numerous short telotrophic ovarioles that are arranged around the distal part of the lateral oviduct. An individual ovariole consists of a distal trophic chamber (= tropharium) and proximal vitellarium. The tropharia enclose individual trophocytes (= nurse cells) and early previtellogenic oocytes termed arrested oocytes. A single oocyte develops in each vitellarium. Analysis of serial sections has shown that ovarioles of P. superbus contain from 16 to 51 germ cells (13-43 trophocytes, 2-7 arrested oocytes, 1 developing oocyte) while those of C. pilosellae from only 8 to 10 germ cells (5-7 trophocytes, 0-2 arrested oocytes, 1 developing oocyte). The classification and phylogeny of scale insects are discussed taking into consideration the results of this study.

Various disturbances in forests often result in the formation of open habitats with characteristics that are distinctly different from those of the original forest (microclimate, illumination, stand age and composition). These disturbances affect the habitat heterogeneity in time and space and seem to drive forest succession and changes in biodiversity in forests. Little is known about how the colonization of deforested habitats by Orthoptera is influenced by environmental factors. We studied the association between the structure of orthopteran assemblages and the age of clear-cuts, vegetation structure and other environmental parameters (size, elevation, altitude). This involved 33 clear-cuts of three age categories in broadleaved forests dominated by European beech. The Orthoptera were sampled using sweep netting and by counting individuals recorded along transects that ran parallel to those used for recording the structure of the vegetation. We recorded significant differences in the number and abundance of species in the three age categories of clear-cuts. Grasshopper species were more abundant than bush-crickets in first year clear-cuts. Species capable of flight occured in all three age categories of clear-cuts (>62% of the 27 species recorded). All the species of Orthoptera identified were present in two year-old clear-cuts. The species composition and abundance of Ensifera and Caelifera differed in their association with the six vegetation parameters studied. While the Caelifera occurred in habitats with bare ground the Ensifera mainly occurred in those with a higher proportion of shrubs and trees. There was also a positive correlation between number of species of Orthoptera and area of the clear-cut regardless of its age as well between the number of species of Orthoptera and elevation.

Knowing the floral origin of the pollen collected by native bees in Neotropical ecosystems enables us to understand the dynamics of the interdependent relationships between the insects and the native flora. The objectives of this study were to: (i) investigate the spectrum of plant species from which pollen is collected by Tetragonisca angustula in caatinga (dry vegetation) areas in the semiarid region of Northeastern Brazil; (ii) identify pollen types that could be used as regional geographical markers and (iii) determine the pollen niche breadth and the pattern of use of floral resources by this stingless bee. In total, 23 samples of the pollen stored by T. angustula were collected monthly and subjected to acetolysis. Of the 45 pollen types identified that of Prosopis juliflora (Fabaceae) and Solanum (Solanaceae) were the most frequently represented in the samples and 19 were collected by the bees at both study sites. Species characteristic of caatinga, such as Poincianella pyramidalis (Tulasne) L.P. Queiroz and Senna macranthera (de Candolle ex Colladon) H.S. Irwin & Barneby, were among the pollen identified and they were used as indicators of the geographical origin of the samples. The average values of the pollen niche breadth (H') and equitability (J') indicate that T. angustula is a generalist and homogeneous forager of the floral resources in caatinga.

The use of phytoseiid species in biological plant protection is widespread. However, the techniques used to release them differ. The possible release of Amblyseius andersoni (Chant, 1959) using a new method was tested. High numbers of this mite overwinter in the ground litter in Hungarian orchards. By transferring such ground litter to plots in young orchards, the population density was found to be significantly increased in the release compared to control plots; A. andersoni became the dominant phytoseiid species in the new orchard. Due to the rate at which it spreads, this species was also recorded in the control plots towards the end of the growing season (Aug., Sept.), at which time there was no significant difference in the numbers of this species in the treated and control plots. In the winter following release, A. andersoni was found in the ground litter of the orchard.

The effects of tannic acid on mean values and genetic variation in fitness-related traits (mass, relative growth rate) and specific activities of digestive enzymes (total proteases, a-glucosidase and lipase), and genetic variation in their plasticity, were investigated in fifth instar larvae of Lymantria dispar L. (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) originating from two populations with different host use histories (oak and locust-tree). The two populations did not differentiate with respect to fitness-related traits, i.e. adverse effects of tannic acid were similar in both populations. However, Robinia larvae, which originated from the locust-tree forest, were characterized by higher total protease and lipase activity and lower a-glucosidase activity than Quercus larvae, which originated from the oak forest. Higher plasticity of lipase and lower plasticity of a-glucosidase in response to tannic acid were also recorded. Quantitative genetic analysis revealed mostly significant expression of genetic variation in the examined traits and trait plasticity, suggesting the potential for evolution of adaptive plastic responses to new environmental conditions and presence of a stressor. The genetic correlations observed between the environments significantly differed from "one", which indicates there are no constraints on the evolution of trait plasticity.

There are twenty-six species of the genus Psallus Fieber, 1858 (Phylinae: Phylini) documented in the Korean Peninsula. Three new species are described: Psallus cheongtaensis sp. n., P. ernsti sp. n. and P. suwonanus sp. n., and four species are reported from Korea for the first time: Psallus cinnabarinus Kerzhner, 1979, P. flavescens Kerzhner, 1988, P. loginovae Kerzhner, 1988, and P. roseoguttatus Yasunaga & Vinokurov, 2000. The genitalic structures of females and males are described and figured for most treated species. A key is provided for identifying all the Korean species.

In social insects, the high variability in the number of queens per colony raises fundamental questions about the evolution of altruism. It is hypothesized, for instance, that nestmate recognition should be less efficient in polygynous than in monogynous colonies because the presence of several breeders increases the diversity of genetically determined recognition cues, leading to a less specific colonial signature. Recent studies, however, have shown that the link between the number of queens in a colony and the recognition abilities of its members is more complex than previously suggested. Here, we studied intraspecific aggression, diversity of potential recognition cues and genetic structure of colonies in the highly polygynous ant Crematogaster pygmaea. Our results reveal that workers of this species are clearly aggressive towards non-nestmates in field experiments but not in more artificial bioassays conducted in Petri dishes, underscoring the importance of context-dependent aspects of the assessment of nestmate recognition. Behavioural, genetic and chemical data show that C. pygmaea is a multicolonial species, forming spatially restricted and well-defined entities. Therefore, the postulated negative correlation between recognition ability of workers and queen number in a colony is not supported by the results of this study.

In order to enhance the mass production of the house fly, Musca domestica, five aspects of its oviposition biology were analyzed. Oviposition substrate and the manner of its presentation, the composition of the diet of the adults, size of the pupae and numbers of flies in a cage were identified as critical. Females preferred to lay eggs on a substrate which was presented within a shelter and with increased linear edges against which the flies could oviposit. Different types of oviposition substrate resulted in comparable yields of eggs. The presence of an oviposition attractant (ammonia) in the manure was found to have a potentially positive effect on female fecundity. Egg yield increased when two protein sources (yeast and milk) were included in the adult diet. However, flies fed a mixture of sugar and yeast laid over 50% fewer eggs than those fed the same proportion of sugar and milk. The fecundity of flies decreased with increase in the number of flies per cage, but the highest total number of eggs per cage was obtained when the flies were most crowded (14.2 cm³ per fly). The size of the pupae did not significantly affect egg production.

Measurements of body temperature in the field demonstrate that Cicada orni Linnaeus regulates body temperature through behavioral mechanisms. Behavior is used to regulate body temperature to a range necessary for calling. As predicted, results showed a general decrease of echeme duration and an increase in inter-echeme interval with rising body temperature. However, no statistically significant correlations of body temperature for any of the variables studied were found, giving evidence that there is more variability in call parameters between individuals than any effect of body temperature.

Hesperomyces virescens is an ectoparasite of some Coccinellidae, which until the mid-1990s was relatively rarely only reported from warm regions in various parts of the world. Analysis of the host and distribution data of H. virescens recorded in the Western Palaearctic and North America reveals several trends in the occurrence and abundance of H. virescens: (1) it has recently been much more frequently recorded, (2) most of the recent records are for more northerly (colder) localities than the early records and (3) the recent records are mostly of a novel host, the invasive harlequin ladybird (Harmonia axyridis). While in North America H. virescens is almost exclusively found on H. axyridis, all European records of this association are very recent and still less numerous than records of Adalia bipunctata as a host. However, based on a relatively few published cases of the H. axyridis-H. virescens association in Europe and the case described in this paper, it is clear that the harlequin ladybird is currently the main host of this parasite. These changes in the abundance and geographical distribution of H. virescens are probably linked to some features of H. axyridis, such as its abundance, multivoltinism with overlapping generations, high level of promiscuity and overwintering in mass aggregations. The occurrence of these features in one species may make it especially suitable for H. virescens and other parasites that require close contact of host individuals for efficient transmission. Indeed, some of the data indicate that parasites other than H. virescens, like the podapolipid mite Coccipolipus hippodamiae and allantonematid nematodes of the genus Parasitylenchus may also heavily parasitize H. axyridis. We hypothesize that the acquisition of H. axyridis as a host by H. virescens, C. hippodamiae and Parasitylenchus spp. may have further consequences for the abundance and distribution of these parasites, including the expansion of their ranges to other continents colonized by invasive populations of this ladybird and areas in Asia where H. axyridis is native.

In the present study, the predatory interactions between two locally abundant large lady beetles, Coccinella septempunctata L. (C7) and Coccinella transversalis F. (Ct) provided with either an extremely scarce, scarce, sub-optimal, optimal or abundant supply of the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris) were investigated. For this, three 2-predator combinations (conspecific C7 + C7 and Ct + Ct, and heterospecific C7 + Ct) of 10-day-old unmated adult females were used. The relationships between the proportion of prey consumed by the predators in the conspecific and heterospecific combinations when provided with five different abundances of prey were similar in consisting of a decelerating (type II) functional response when provided with an extremely scarce to optimal supply of prey, followed by an accelerating (type III) functional response when provided with an optimal to abundant supply of prey. It is likely that the modified type II functional response recorded in the present study was a consequence of using a small experimental arena (Petri dish). The multiplicative risk model analysis revealed that the predators interacted antagonistically except in the C7 + C7 combination provided with an extremely scarce supply of prey where the predators had an additive effect. The predators in the heterospecific C7 + Ct combination consumed fewer aphids when provided with an extremely scarce, scarce, sub-optimal or optimal supply of prey prey than the predators in conspecific C7 + C7 combination but a similarly high number when provided with an abundant supply of prey. In addition, the efficiency of converting prey biomass into their own biomass was higher in the heterospecific C7 + Ct than in the conspecific C7 + C7 or Ct + Ct combinations at all prey densities. Although the conversion efficiency of the predators in the conspecific and heterospecific combinations provided with an extremely scarce supply of prey was the highest recorded, their growth rate was the lowest. In contrast, both the conversion efficiency and growth rate of the predators in the three combinations were highest when provided with an abundant supply of prey. It may, therefore, be concluded that when the predators in the combinations occupy similar ecological niches, they will probably consume less prey than they require when prey is both scarce and abundant because the predators interact antagonistically.

Abstract. Using data on the known Iberian distributions of 10 species of Lepidoptera listed in the Habitats Directive referenced to the 10 × 10 km UTM grid, we determined their potential distributions and their relationships with selected bioclimatic factors associated with mean temperature and precipitation using Ecological Niche Factor Analysis (ENFA). Scores for Specialization and Marginality were determined in order to evaluate the relationships between the predictions of the model and climatic factors. The number of squares on the Iberian Peninsula in which the species are recorded and those squares predicted to be favourable for these species were determined if they matched the network of Protected Natural Areas. This suggested that a further eight 10 × 10 km squares should be included in Protected Natural Areas. The results also indicate that climate determines the distributions of most of the species. Although overall there is a close association between the observed and predicted distributions, the less thoroughly documented geographic ranges (i.e. those of the moth species) depart from this pattern.

Pollen analysis of crop samples was used to identify the food sources of species of beetles of the family Oedemeridae in Bulgaria. A total of 21 species and subspecies were examined; pollen was present in the crops of 18 of the species. Our study is the first to provide information on the food sources of four species and subspecies: Chrysanthia varipes varipes, Anogcodes seladonius turcicus, A. ruficollis and Oedemera flavicans. New data on food sources for many of the other species studied was obtained and feeding on pollen of gymnosperms and honeydew by some of the species was confirmed. Possible mechanisms for digesting pollen are discussed. There was no evidence of either the pollen germinating or being predigested in the crop of the beetles.

The Marsh fritillary (Euphydryas aurinia) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) has declined across Europe, including the Czech Republic. Current conservation strategies rely on prevention of habitat loss and degradation, and increase in habitat quality and connectivity via promoting traditional grassland management. The population structure and adult demography parameters of a single population was investigated for eight years (single system), and of all the known Czech populations (multiple populations) for a single year, using mark-recapture. There was substantial variation in the patterns of adult demography, both among years in the single system and among the multiple populations in a single year. In the single system, the date of the first flight of an adult varied by 18 days over the 8 years and total annual numbers varied with a coefficient of variation of 0.40 (females fluctuating more than males). The average density was ca 80 adults/ha. The population size displayed density-dependence, i.e. decreased following years with high adult numbers, with an equilibrium density of 90 individuals/ha. The average density of the multiple populations was ca 120 individuals/ha. The estimated total population for the Czech Republic was 25,000 individuals (17,000 males / 8,000 females) in 2007, which does not indicate an imminent threat of extinction. The regional persistence of E. aurinia is likely to depend on re-colonisation of temporarily vacant sites by dispersing individuals, facilitated by local shifts in adult flight phenology to that better adapted to local conditions.

Larvae of Chironomidae are distributed world-wide and are very abundant in eutrophic water bodies affected by cyanobacterial blooms. However, there is little information on the effect of cyanobacteria and their metabolites on these aquatic organisms. Our studies revealed that benthic species of Chironomus inhabiting a hypertrophic lake where blooms of microcystin (MC) and/or anatoxin-a (ANTX)-producing filamentous Planktothrix agardhii, Dolichospermum spp. and Cuspidothrix issatschenkoi occur, fed on these cyanobacteria and accumulated cyanotoxins. Up to 3.2 µg MCs g^-1 F.W. and up to 185 µg ANTX g^-1 F.W. were detected. Of the four MC variants detected in the cyanobacterial biomass [Asp³, Dhb⁷]MC-RR and MC-LR prevailed, whereas in the larvae it was [Asp³, Dhb⁷]MC-RR and MC-LA. The effect of pure MC-LR and ANTX as well as crude extracts of MC-producing P. agardhii and ANTX-producing D. lemmermannii on lake and riverine larvae of Chironomus spp. was also compared. The assays revealed that pure cyanotoxins (concentrations: 0.83-3.32 mg L^-1) were generally less toxic to riverine larvae than cyanobacterial extracts containing approximately 10-times less toxins. The survival of both the lake and riverine Chironomus larvae did not decrease when exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of cyanotoxins (< 0.20 mg L^-1). The larvae were also highly resistant to higher amounts (up to 0.35 mg ANTX L^-1 and 0.42 mg MCs L^-1) of extracellular toxins. In the natural environment, Chironomus larvae exposed to toxins contained in cyanobacterial prey, dissolved in water and/or bound to bottom sediments may be very important vectors of cyanotoxins to higher levels in aquatic food chains. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the accumulation of ANTX and effects of cyanotoxins on Chironomus larvae.

Invertebrate diversity has rapidly declined throughout Europe during the last century. Various reasons for this decrease have been proposed including human induced factors like climate change. Temperature changes alter distributions and occurrences of butterflies by determining habitat conditions at different scales. We evaluated changes in the composition of butterfly communities recorded at nine areas of fallow ground in south-western Germany in 1973, 1986, 2010 and 2012 using Pollard's transect technique. To demonstrate the importance of climatic changes in affecting butterfly communities, we calculated the community temperature index (CTI) for each butterfly community in each year. Although they increased slightly, the CTI-values did not match the temperature trends recorded in the study region. However, the reduction in the standard deviations of the CTIs over time is reflected in the marked loss of cold- and warm-adapted species due to their inability to cope with temperature and land-use induced habitat changes. Results of our butterfly surveys indicate a marked decline in species richness and striking changes in the composition of the butterfly communities studied. This trend was most pronounced for habitat specialists, thus mirroring a depletion in trait diversity. Our results indicate that, in the course of large-scale anthropogenic changes, habitat degradation at smaller scales will continuously lead to the replacement of habitat specialists by ubiquitous species.

A multi-model ensemble of 15 climate change projections from regional climate models was used to assess the impact of changes in air temperature and precipitation on the phenology of pest species in agriculture. This allowed the bandwidths of expected changes in both meteorological variables to be calculated, forming the basis for assessing and clearly communicating the uncertainties related to the model results. More specifically, we investigated the potential impact of regional climate change effects on the crop invasion of the rape stem weevil, Ceutorhynchus napi Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), in Central Europe (Luxembourg). Multisite and perennial data from field observations were used to choose a biological model from the literature, based on daily maximum air temperature and daily totals of precipitation to describe the migration of C. napi. Based on this statistical relation, we were able to reproduce the observed crop invasion with a mean root mean squared error (RMSE) of 10 days. Daily values of projected maximum air temperatures and daily totals of precipitation of the multi-model ensemble were used as input data for the threshold-based biological model that projects the immigration of this pest species into oilseed rape crops (Brassica napus L.). We examined three thirty-year timespans, the near (2021 to 2050) and the far future (2069 to 2098) and compared them to a reference timespan (1961 to 1990). The projections showed a significant shift of crop invasion to an earlier onset for the near (14 days) and far future (21 days) compared to the reference period. In addition, the timespan in which the potential crop invasion will take place increased from 53 days in the reference timespan to 73 days in the near and 65 days in the far future based on the ensemble median values. It could be expected that a shifting of the immigration period will increase the risk of missing the appropriate time frame for an insecticide application. A depletion of stored nutrient resources, leading to starvation after diapause, can be eliminated for C. napi under climate change effects, as this species hibernates motionless as an adult in earth cocoons until emergence in early springtime driven by temperature.

Mated females of the small copper butterfly Lycaena phlaeas avoid harassment by males by closing their wings and concealing themselves when in the proximity of a con-specific butterfly. This wing-closing behaviour is less frequently exhibited by virgin females that are two days old or older (i.e., potentially receptive) than by mated females. During the first 2 days after emergence, females of L. phlaeas are sexually immature and unreceptive. To determine whether recently emerged virgin females try to avoid male harassment, age-related changes in the frequency of harassment-avoidance behaviour of virgin females were investigated. On the day of emergence, a high percentage of virgin females exhibited wing-closing behaviour. Over the following 2 days, however, the frequency of this behaviour declined sharply and then reached a constant low level. This observation supports the idea that the harassment-avoidance behaviour exhibited by virgin females of L. phlaeas depends on their receptivity.

Muga silkworm (Antheraea assamensis Helfer) is endemic to Assam and adjoining areas in North-Eastern India, and naturally produces golden silk. From time immemorial, many ethnic and tribal groups have produced muga silk. Muga silkworms are mostly wild unlike the mulberry silkworm, which is completely domesticated. The muga silkworm is a single species with little genetic variation among populations, survives harsh climatic conditions and is subject to various diseases, pests and predators. Due to the high incidence of disease and natural enemies, and variations in climatic conditions, the production of muga silk has recently declined dramatically. In order to improve the productivity of this silkworm it is important to have a better knowledge of both its host plants and biology. Lack of knowledge of its genetics and host plants is a major bottleneck. This paper reviews various aspects of muga silkworm culture, including the availability of different populations, and methods used to select for improvement in survival, cocoon yield, disease resistance, conservation and egg production.

In this study we evaluate how variations in taxonomic composition and physical structure of macrophyte stands affect plant-dwelling chironomid assemblages in highly variable macrophyte assemblages in two densely vegetated backwaters. By using multivariate explanatory techniques we found that similar vegetation composition did not unequivocally relate to similar chironomid assemblages, moreover the diversity of macrophyte stands did not correlate with the taxonomic diversity of chironomid assemblages in the backwaters investigated. Taxonomic composition and structural characteristics of the vegetation had little influence on the taxonomic or functional (i.e. feeding groups) composition of chironomid assemblages inhabiting them. Similarly, there are only weak relationships between the distribution of certain chironomid species or functional feeding groups and the environmental variables investigated. In general, the structure of the vegetation was more closely associated with the distribution of dominant chironomid taxa than compositional variables (i.e. density of specific macrophyte taxa). In summary, the structure of aquatic vegetation (i.e. position, size of a stand of vegetation, total plant density) and characteristics of the environment where it develops may be more important in shaping plant-dwelling chironomid assemblages than the taxonomic composition of the vegetation.

We conducted a molecular phylogenetic analysis based on mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I and nuclear 28S rRNA gene sequences of species of Japanese elmids (23 species from 12 genera) and examined the hind-wings of 24 species in order to determine the incidence of hind-wing degeneration among species and the presence of dimorphic species with respect to hind-wing degeneration. Based on the molecular phylogenetic analysis, we determined that the previously separated winged and wingless species, Stenelmis vulgaris and S. miyamotoi, and Leptelmis gracilis and L. parallela, are two forms of the same species. Of the 24 species whose hind wings were studied, we found apterous (3 species of Zaitzeviaria), brachypterous (2 species of each of Optioservus and Paramacronychus) and dimorphic species (2 species as above) in separate clades of the phylogeny. These were the smallest or medium-sized species. Dimorphic species occurred in mid- to downstream areas and used reeds and wood as substrates. The percentage of species with hind-wing degeneration (wingless or dimorphic) was high among the species (29%) studied compared to the perceived percentage for temperate beetles (<10%). Thus, we found that the degeneration of hind wings has occurred repeatedly in these elmid species. However, we identified only ambiguous habitat and life history correlates of hind-wing degeneration, and the adaptive significance of hind-wing degeneration in these species of elmids remains unclear.

Soil cultivation is among the principal factors that determine the structure and properties of soil and also affects the species composition and abundance of soil dwelling arthropods. Carabid beetles are a particularly valuable group of arthropods, the species of which are strongly associated with particular soil environments. This paper discusses the effect of soil tillage on carabid beetle assemblages. The study was carried out near Olsztyn, in northeastern Poland. Six wheat fields, each cultivated using either, conventional or non-inversion, soil tillage, were chosen. Carabid beetles were caught in Barber s traps from early April to the end of October 2011. In total, 7,486 specimens belonging to 55 species of the family Carabidae were captured. The most numerous were Poecilus cupreus, Pterostichus melanarius, Harpalus rufipes, Anchomenus dorsalis and Carabus granulatus. Differences in the abundance of ground beetles and some life history traits were associated with the two soil tillage systems. In particular, ploughing reduced carabid abundance and resulted in the increased activity of medium-sized zoophages and spring breeders.

In this study we addressed a question of whether experimental manipulations that increase life span also reduce physical activity and molecular oxidative damage. We used three phenotypes of male and female Pyrrhocoris apterus that survive for different lengths of time, diapausing insects, reproductive insects and insects from which the corpus allatum, the source of juvenile hormone, was surgically removed. Protein carbonyl content of the thoracic muscles was used as an index of molecular oxidative modification. Diapause or ablation of the corpus allatum (allatectomy) was associated with an extended life span of both sexes, but only those individuals that were in diapause were less active. The carbonyl content, both relative (per protein unit) and absolute (per thorax) increased with age in reproductive insects of both sexes. However, the associations between the carbonyl content and diapause and allatectomy differed in males and females. In males, the carbonyl content was not associated with either diapause or allatectomy. There was no age-related increase in the relative and absolute carbonyl levels in diapausing females, while only the increase in the relative carbonyl level was absent in allectomized females. Overall, the results indicate that both allatectomy and diapause prolonged life span, but had different and sex-specific effects on locomotor activity and carbonyl content. Only the extension of the life span of diapausing females was correlated with both reduced locomotor activity and reduced carbonyl content.

Aphidoidea, endosymbiotic bacteria, bacteriocytes, transovarial transmission of endosymbiotic bacteria The ultrastructure, distribution and transovarial transmission of endosymbiotic bacteria in representatives of six aphid families: Eriosomatidae (Pemphigus spyrothecae, Prociphilus fraxini), Anoeciidae [Anoecia (Anoecia) corni], Drepanosiphidae [Mindarus abietinus, Sipha (Rungsia) maydis, Clethrobius comes, Myzocallis (Lineomyzocallis) walshii], Thelaxidae (Thelaxes dryophila), Aphididae (Delphiniobium junackianum, Aphis viburni, Cavariella theobaldi, Macrosiphoniella tanacetaria) and Lachnidae (Schizolachnus pineti, Eulachnus rileyi) were studied at the ultrastructural level. The ovaries of aphids are accompanied by large organs termed bacteriomes that consist of giant cells termed bacteriocytes. The bacteriocyte cytoplasm is tightly packed with endosymbiotic bacteria. Ultrastructural observations have shown that the bacteria Buchnera aphidicola (primary symbiont of aphids) present in various species are characterized by significant differences in both size and organization of their cytoplasm. In the aphids, Prociphilus fraxini, Sipha (Rungsia) maydis, Thelaxes dryophila, Aphis viburni, Cavariella theobaldi, Macrosiphoniella tanacetaria, Eulachnus rileyi and Schizolachnus pineti, in addition to Buchnera aphidicola, secondary endosymbionts are also present. The bacteriocytes containing secondary endosymbionts are less numerous than those with Buchnera. In Eulachnus rileyi (Lachnidae), in addition to primary and secondary endosymbionts, there is a third type of microorganism. In all species examined both the primary and secondary endosymbionts are transovarially transmitted from mother to offspring.

Acridids could be an alternative source of protein for feeding to livestock as large numbers can be produced by rearing them on suitable food plants under optimum environmental conditions. The aim of the present study was to find a suitable food plant for the mass culture of the short-horn grasshopper Oxya hyla hyla (Serville). Food consumption and utilization, growth (growth rate, average daily growth, specific growth rate and wet weight gain), survival and life span of this insect reared on Sorghum halepense, Cyanodon dactylon and a mixture of these two plants were determined. The result revealed that the food utilization, growth and survival of this grasshopper depended on the food plant. The nymphs that were reared on C. dactylon consumed less food but had a greater efficiency of conversion of ingested food to body mass, growth performance and survival than those feed on the other two types of food. In contrast, the food consumption and utilization, growth and weight gain of adult grasshoppers was greatest when they were reared on S. halepense. These results indicate that of the plants used in this study C. dactylon is the best for rearing the nymphs and S. halepense for rearing the adults of Oxya hyla hyla.

Piles of fresh cow and horse dung were placed in a pasture in Dziarny in north-east Poland. The differences between the beetle communities colonizing both types of dung at various stages of succession were analyzed. Beetles were sampled 2, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 days after placing the piles of dung in the pasture. A total of 5 343 individuals belonging to 125 species and 10 families were collected in 24 samples. None of the species of beetles collected colonized exclusively one type of dung. Several taxa showed a clear preference for cow or horse dung. Beetle succession proceeded faster in horse dung and there were significant differences in the dominant species recorded in the two types of dung. The reasons for the reported patterns are discussed.

Among animal constructions, the orb webs of spiders are perfect geometrical architectural models. Webs are constructed by means of a succession of behaviours, which are often considered as instinctive and stereotyped. Anomalies in web structure are considered to be a consequence of variability in behaviour. In order to assess the variability in web structure, the spider Zygiella x-notata was allowed to build webs in the laboratory under standardized conditions. Webs (n = 127) were examined for anomalies, which were defined as modifications in the geometrical structure. Ten anomalies in the structure of webs produced by females, aged from 16 to 21 days after their adult moult, are described. The frequency of anomalies per web varies from 5 to 98. A very low percentage of the spiral elements of a web (less than 5%) were affected. Anomalies in the radii were less numerous (mean = 3 ± 3) than those in the sticky spiral (mean = 21 ± 11). Anomalies in the sticky spiral were different and more frequent in the peripheral than central parts of the webs. They were also relatively more numerous in the upper than in the lower part of the webs. Total number of anomalies was positively correlated with particular web characteristics (capture area, length of capture thread, width of the lower part of the web and mean distance between two spiral turns in the lower part) but not to the physical characteristics of the spiders (mass and size). Our results indicate that the orb webs of spiders, which are considered to be perfect geometrical structures, include anomalies mainly in the structure of the sticky spiral. These anomalies were the result of variability in behaviour during web building. In conclusion, their identification and description enable one to use them in spider webs as an index of behavioural variability.

Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) is one of the most harmful plant viruses and one of its most important vectors is the western flower thrips [Frankliniella occidentalis Pergande (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)]. Recently, we reported the close association of Erwinia sp. gut bacteria with this species of thrips. The first instar larvae acquire these bacteria from their food source. A high proportion of adult western flower thrips transmit TSWV after acquiring the virus during the first larval stage when there are no bacteria in their gut. A considerably lower proportion of adults that acquire the virus early in the second instar transmit virus and none of those exposed to virus late on in the second instar do so. The highest prevalence and total number of symbiotic bacteria are recorded in the guts of second instar thrips. This leads to the hypothesis that the build up of bacteria in the gut reduces the acquisition of TSWV, resulting in a lower capacity to transmit the virus. To test this hypothesis, the transmission of this virus by symbiotic and aposymbiotic adult thrips of the NL3 population was studied. Comparison of virus transmission by adult thrips, the larvae of which either had or lacked gut bacteria and were exposed to virus in either the first or second instar, revealed no difference in the ability of symbiotic and aposymbiotic adults to transmit this virus. We conclude that virus transmission is not affected by the number of the symbiotic bacteria Erwinia sp. present in the gut of thrips larvae.

Ant-like stone beetles (Coleoptera: Scydmaenidae) include more than 4,850 described species in about 90 genera maintained as a separate cosmopolitan family since 1815. Recent authors have hypothesised that Scydmaenidae might be rooted deep inside rove-beetles (Staphylinidae). To test this hypothesis we analysed 206 parsimoniously informative larval and adult morphological characters scored for 38 taxa. Strict consensus topologies from the shortest trees in all 12 analyses consistently placed Scydmaenidae as sister to (Steninae + Euaesthetinae) in a monophyletic Staphylinine Group (with or without Oxyporinae). The single fully resolved and most consistently supported topology maintains a monophyletic Staphylinine Group consisting of Oxyporinae + (Megalopsidiinae + (("Scydmaenidae" + (Steninae + Euaesthetinae)) + (Leptotyphlinae + (Pseudopsinae + (Paederinae + Staphylininae))))); Solierius lacks larval data and is ambiguously placed within the Group. Eight analyses of variably aligned 18S rDNA data for 93 members of Staphylinoidea under parsimony, neighbour-joining and Bayesian approaches were markedly inconsistent, although partly congruent with the Scydmaenidae + (Steninae + Euaesthetinae) hypothesis. Our results strongly suggest that ant-like stone beetles do not form an independent family, but are morphologically modified members of Staphylinidae and, consequently, should be treated as a 32nd recent subfamily within the megadiverse Staphylinidae sensu latissimo. Formal taxonomic acts are: Scydmaeninae Leach, 1815, status novus (= Scydmaenidae Leach, 1815); Scydmaenitae Leach, 1815, status novus (= Scydmaeninae Leach, 1815); Mastigitae Fleming, 1821, status novus (= Mastiginae Fleming, 1821); Hapsomelitae Poinar & Brown, 2004, status novus (= Hapsomelinae Poinar & Brown, 2004). The family Staphylinidae sensu latissimo becomes the largest in Coleoptera and in the whole of the Animal Kingdom, with 55,440 described species (extant plus extinct), thus surpassing Curculionidae with an estimated 51,000 described species.

Several studies have demonstrated that the invasive ladybird Harmonia axyridis is a strong intra-guild predator of native species of ladybird. Laboratory studies have shown that H. axyridis can be an intra-guild predator of aphid predators other than coccinellids, including the hoverfly Episyrphus balteatus and lacewing Chrysoperla carnea. However, little is known about the effect of intra-guild predation (IGP) by H. axyridis on hoverfly and lacewing populations in the field. In the present study molecular analyses were used to detect the DNA of E. balteatus and C. carnea in the gut contents of H. axyridis. Primers for the syrphid and chrysopid prey were designed and feeding experiments performed to determine how long prey DNA remains detectable in the guts of this ladybird. DNA detection was influenced by the life stage of the predator and species of prey. Meal size did not affect detection time, except when fourth instar individuals of H. axyridis were fed 10 eggs or one second instar of C. carnea. Predator weight, sex and morpho-type (melanic/non-melanic) did not influence DNA detection. The half-life of the time for which the DNA of the prey remained detectable was calculated for each predator-prey combination, and ranged from 8.9 to 52.4 h. This method can be used to study the ecological importance of IGP by H. axyridis on aphidophagous predators other than coccinellids in the field.