The efficacy of pyriproxyfen, a juvenile hormone analog (JHA), was evaluated using third instar larvae of Drosophila melanogaster Meigen, 1830 (Diptera: Drosophilidae). Various doses of the compound, ranging from 0.01 to 2 ng/larva, were applied topically to larvae (12 h before pupariation). Treatment did not prevent pupariation but inhibited adult emergence at all the doses tested. In a second series of experiments the ecdysteroid content of pupae was determined following application of pyriproxyfen at two doses, 0.108 and 0.29 ng/larva, corresponding to ID₂₅ and ID₅₀, the doses required for 25 and 50% inhibition of adult emergence, respectively. Pyriproxyfen treatment increased the duration of pupal development. In addition, enzyme immunoassay measurements of ecdysteroids in whole body extracts of pupae indicated that pyriproxyfen decreased the ecdysteroid content in a dose-dependent manner. Finally, the effects on the cuticle of pyriproxyfen (ID₅₀) were studied histologically, which revealed that this compound increased the thickness of the new adult cuticle and suppressed the formation of bristles. Biochemical analyzes revealed that an increase in chitin content of the cuticle is only recorded at the highest dose. Thus, a topical application of pyriproxyfen to third instar larvae interfered with the molting hormone and disrupted the normal development of this insect.

The ability of biocontrol agents to overcome the immune defense of pests is a crucial issue. This is the first study of lysozyme activity as an inducible humoral component of the defense of Schistocerca gregaria, which depends on the recognition of the elicitor molecules of pathogens and not on epidermal wounding or a spiking effect. The level of lysozyme activity in fat body, haemocytes and haemolymph plasma of naïve and immunologically challenged 5^th instar S. gregaria was evaluated using the zone of inhibition test against Micrococcus lysodeikticus. Various Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria as well as peptidoglycans (PGN) and lipopolysacchrides (LPS) of bacterial cell walls induce and increase in the level of lysozyme activity. Escherichia coli induced an increase in the level of activity of lysozyme in the fat body, haemocytes and plasma, but not in mid gut epithelium, 6-12 h after an immunological challenge and then it decreased to the constitutive level after 72 h. This study revealed that in S. gregaria there is a constitutive and a bacteria-inducible level of lysozyme activity, which protects it against infection by both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria.

Sex ratio and chromosomes studies were performed on six of the seven species of genus Cyclocephala present in the Lesser Antilles. Most sex ratios based on light trapping are skewed, with a frequent, but not exclusive, strong excess of females. These unbalances vary from species to species and island to island for the same species. Comparing old (seventies) and recent captures, the imbalances seem to increase with time. All of the 72 karyotyped males were diploid: 20,XY. Of the 15 females studied, one (C. dominicensis) was triploid: 30,XXX, a condition that only occurs in parthenogenetic species of beetles. We conclude that parthenogenesis is progressively developing within different sexual populations of Cyclocephala in the Lesser Antilles, which accounts for the excess of females recorded there. We propose that preexisting recessive mutations are the cause and that island colonization, by preventing panmictic reproduction, favours the expression of these recessive mutations. This would account for the accelerated occurrence of new characters (speciation /sub-speciation process), including unusual modes of reproduction such as parthenogenesis, and that several genetically related populations express these characters independently on different islands.

Heteroptera caught during day and night sampling at a height of 200 m above ground at Cardington, Bedfordshire, UK, during eight summers (1999, 2000, and 2002-2007) were compared to high-altitude catches made over the UK and North Sea from the 1930s to the 1950s. The height of these captures indicates that individuals were engaged in windborne migration over distances of at least several kilometres and probably tens of kilometres. This conclusion is generally supported by what is known of the species' ecologies, which reflect the view that the level of dispersiveness is associated with the exploitation of temporary habitats or resources. The seasonal timing of the heteropteran migrations is interpreted in terms of the breeding/overwintering cycles of the species concerned.

Determining the season of death by means of the composition of the families of insects infesting carrion is rarely attempted in forensic studies and has never been statistically modelled. For this reason, a baseline-category logit model is proposed for predicting the season of death as a function of whether the area where the carcass was exposed is sunlit or shaded and of the relative abundance of particular families of carrion insects (Calliphoridae, Fanniidae, Sarcophagidae, and Formicidae). The field study was conducted using rodent carcasses (20-252 g) in an urban forest in southeastern Brazil. Four carcasses (2 in a sunlit and 2 in a shaded area) were placed simultaneously at the study site, twice during each season from August 2003 through June 2004. The feasibility of the model, measured in terms of overall accuracy, is 64 ± 14%. It is likely the proposed model will assist forensic teams in predicting the season of death in tropical ecosystems, without the need of identifying the species of specimens or the remains of carrion insects.

Trissolcus grandis is an important egg parasitoid of sunn pest, Eurygaster integriceps Puton (Hemiptera: Scutelleridae), the most serious pest of wheat in Iran. The thermal requirements of two populations of T. grandis were studied at five constant temperatures ranging from 20-32°C. Thermal thresholds for development were calculated using linear regression and degree-day models were determined by fitting non-linear equations to the data. The lower threshold for development was estimated to be 12.5 and 12.1°C, respectively, for males and females of the Bonab population, compared to 14.4 and 14.5°C for those of the Qaramalek population. Complete development required 143.8 and 162.8 degree-days, respectively, for males and females of the Bonab population and 116.9 and 124.6 for those of the Qaramalek population. Thus, wasps from the warmer region (Qaramalek) developed faster than those from the cooler region (Bonab), but had a higher thermal threshold for initiating development. Bonab females attained their highest fecundity (117.7 ± 7.2) at the lowest temperature tested (20°C), whereas the fecundity of Qaramalek females was maximal (96.8 ± 11.5) at 26°C. Biological control programmes that seek to augment wasp populations in wheat fields early in the spring, when natural rates of sunn pest parasitism tend to be low, should consider wasp thermal requirements to ensure the selection and release of locally-adapted parasitoids.

Karyotypes and testis structure of 14 species representing 9 genera (Latissus, Bubastia, Falcidius, Kervillea, Mulsantereum, Mycterodus, Scorlupaster, Scorlupella and Zopherisca) of the planthopper tribe Issini (Issidae) are presented. All the karyotypes are illustrated by meiotic and occasionally mitotic figures. The male karyotypes of most of the species analyzed are 2n = 26 + X, the exception being Falcidius limbatus, which has a karyotype of 2n = 24 + neo-XY. The latter is the first report of the neo-XY system in the family Issidae. The species studied are found to be similar in having NORs on the largest pair of autosomes, but differ significantly in the amount and distribution of C-heterochromatin along the chromosomes. In contrast to the conserved chromosome numbers, the highly variable follicle number in the testes suggests rapid evolution of the tribe Issini. On the basis of its specific follicle number, it is proposed that Zopherisca tendinosa skaloula Gnezdilov & Drosopoulos, 2006 be upgrade to a species: Z. skaloula stat. n. The cytological and taxonomic significance of results presented are discussed.

We investigate orthopteran communities in the natural landscape of the Russian Far East and compare the habitat requirements of the species with those of the same or closely related species found in the largely agricultural landscape of central Europe. The study area is the 1,200 km² Lazovsky State Nature Reserve (Primorsky region, southern Russian Far East) 200 km east of Vladivostok in the southern spurs of the Sikhote-Alin Mountains (134°E/43°N). The abundance of Orthoptera was recorded in August and September 2001 based on the number present in 20 randomly placed 1 m² quadrates per site. For each plot (i) the number of species of Orthoptera, (ii) absolute species abundance and (iii) fifteen environmental parameters characterising habitat structure and microclimate were recorded. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) was used first to determine whether the Orthoptera occur in ecologically coherent groups, and second, to assess their association with habitat characteristics. In addition, the number of species and individuals in natural and semi-natural habitats were compared using a t test. A total of 899 individuals of 31 different species were captured, with numbers ranging between 2 and 13 species per plot. Species diversity was higher in semi-natural habitats than natural habitats. There was a similar but non-significant pattern in species density. Ordination analysis indicated four orthopteran communities, which were clearly separable along a moisture and vegetation density gradient. The natural sites in the woodland area of the Lazovsky Zapovednik are characterized by species-poor and low-density orthopteran assemblages compared to the semi-natural sites. But, the natural sites have a higher diversity of habitat specialists. Our findings corroborate the hypothesis that intermediate habitat disturbance levels support particularly species-rich animal communities at high densities. Under such regimes, orthopterans presumably mostly profit from the high diversity in plant species, which generates great structural and microclimatic heterogeneity.

A little-known scathophagid fly is reported infesting the flowers and scapes of Narcissus poeticus growing in the Italian Central Apennines (AQ). This insect bores through the flower bud and lays an egg on the tepals. Both pistil and scape parenchymatous tissues provide the larva with nutrition, and the hollow stem a safe site for its metamorphosis. Infestation by this insect prevents the ovules from being fertilized as the larvae feed on the tisues in the style and so prevent the growth of pollen tubes.

Some behavioural aspects of the reproductive biology of Megaselia andrenae Disney, a kleptoparasite of the communal bee Andrena agilissima (Scopoli), were investigated at the nesting site of its host at Isola d'Elba (Italy). The scuttle fly mates more often in the early afternoon, which coincides with the period when the provisioning flights of its host are more frequent. The presence of the flies at the host nesting site, either in copula or single, is lower in the morning. In general only the females enter the host nests immediately after a mate, in a few cases closely followed by the males. When leaving the nest, females refuse to mate again with the males waiting outside. Observations on the ovaries of the females revealed no differences, either in the number of eggs or in the length of the most mature egg, between the individuals collected in copula or when flying alone. The species is sexually dimorphic, the females being larger than males. Male size does not seem to influence the females choice for mating.

Aphidoidea, endosymbiotic bacteria, bacteriocytes, transovarial transmission of endosymbiotic bacteria The ultrastructure, distribution and transovarial transmission of endosymbiotic bacteria in representatives of six aphid families: Eriosomatidae (Pemphigus spyrothecae, Prociphilus fraxini), Anoeciidae [Anoecia (Anoecia) corni], Drepanosiphidae [Mindarus abietinus, Sipha (Rungsia) maydis, Clethrobius comes, Myzocallis (Lineomyzocallis) walshii], Thelaxidae (Thelaxes dryophila), Aphididae (Delphiniobium junackianum, Aphis viburni, Cavariella theobaldi, Macrosiphoniella tanacetaria) and Lachnidae (Schizolachnus pineti, Eulachnus rileyi) were studied at the ultrastructural level. The ovaries of aphids are accompanied by large organs termed bacteriomes that consist of giant cells termed bacteriocytes. The bacteriocyte cytoplasm is tightly packed with endosymbiotic bacteria. Ultrastructural observations have shown that the bacteria Buchnera aphidicola (primary symbiont of aphids) present in various species are characterized by significant differences in both size and organization of their cytoplasm. In the aphids, Prociphilus fraxini, Sipha (Rungsia) maydis, Thelaxes dryophila, Aphis viburni, Cavariella theobaldi, Macrosiphoniella tanacetaria, Eulachnus rileyi and Schizolachnus pineti, in addition to Buchnera aphidicola, secondary endosymbionts are also present. The bacteriocytes containing secondary endosymbionts are less numerous than those with Buchnera. In Eulachnus rileyi (Lachnidae), in addition to primary and secondary endosymbionts, there is a third type of microorganism. In all species examined both the primary and secondary endosymbionts are transovarially transmitted from mother to offspring.

Acridids could be an alternative source of protein for feeding to livestock as large numbers can be produced by rearing them on suitable food plants under optimum environmental conditions. The aim of the present study was to find a suitable food plant for the mass culture of the short-horn grasshopper Oxya hyla hyla (Serville). Food consumption and utilization, growth (growth rate, average daily growth, specific growth rate and wet weight gain), survival and life span of this insect reared on Sorghum halepense, Cyanodon dactylon and a mixture of these two plants were determined. The result revealed that the food utilization, growth and survival of this grasshopper depended on the food plant. The nymphs that were reared on C. dactylon consumed less food but had a greater efficiency of conversion of ingested food to body mass, growth performance and survival than those feed on the other two types of food. In contrast, the food consumption and utilization, growth and weight gain of adult grasshoppers was greatest when they were reared on S. halepense. These results indicate that of the plants used in this study C. dactylon is the best for rearing the nymphs and S. halepense for rearing the adults of Oxya hyla hyla.

In this study we addressed a question of whether experimental manipulations that increase life span also reduce physical activity and molecular oxidative damage. We used three phenotypes of male and female Pyrrhocoris apterus that survive for different lengths of time, diapausing insects, reproductive insects and insects from which the corpus allatum, the source of juvenile hormone, was surgically removed. Protein carbonyl content of the thoracic muscles was used as an index of molecular oxidative modification. Diapause or ablation of the corpus allatum (allatectomy) was associated with an extended life span of both sexes, but only those individuals that were in diapause were less active. The carbonyl content, both relative (per protein unit) and absolute (per thorax) increased with age in reproductive insects of both sexes. However, the associations between the carbonyl content and diapause and allatectomy differed in males and females. In males, the carbonyl content was not associated with either diapause or allatectomy. There was no age-related increase in the relative and absolute carbonyl levels in diapausing females, while only the increase in the relative carbonyl level was absent in allectomized females. Overall, the results indicate that both allatectomy and diapause prolonged life span, but had different and sex-specific effects on locomotor activity and carbonyl content. Only the extension of the life span of diapausing females was correlated with both reduced locomotor activity and reduced carbonyl content.

Piles of fresh cow and horse dung were placed in a pasture in Dziarny in north-east Poland. The differences between the beetle communities colonizing both types of dung at various stages of succession were analyzed. Beetles were sampled 2, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 days after placing the piles of dung in the pasture. A total of 5 343 individuals belonging to 125 species and 10 families were collected in 24 samples. None of the species of beetles collected colonized exclusively one type of dung. Several taxa showed a clear preference for cow or horse dung. Beetle succession proceeded faster in horse dung and there were significant differences in the dominant species recorded in the two types of dung. The reasons for the reported patterns are discussed.

Several studies have demonstrated that the invasive ladybird Harmonia axyridis is a strong intra-guild predator of native species of ladybird. Laboratory studies have shown that H. axyridis can be an intra-guild predator of aphid predators other than coccinellids, including the hoverfly Episyrphus balteatus and lacewing Chrysoperla carnea. However, little is known about the effect of intra-guild predation (IGP) by H. axyridis on hoverfly and lacewing populations in the field. In the present study molecular analyses were used to detect the DNA of E. balteatus and C. carnea in the gut contents of H. axyridis. Primers for the syrphid and chrysopid prey were designed and feeding experiments performed to determine how long prey DNA remains detectable in the guts of this ladybird. DNA detection was influenced by the life stage of the predator and species of prey. Meal size did not affect detection time, except when fourth instar individuals of H. axyridis were fed 10 eggs or one second instar of C. carnea. Predator weight, sex and morpho-type (melanic/non-melanic) did not influence DNA detection. The half-life of the time for which the DNA of the prey remained detectable was calculated for each predator-prey combination, and ranged from 8.9 to 52.4 h. This method can be used to study the ecological importance of IGP by H. axyridis on aphidophagous predators other than coccinellids in the field.

A novel chromosome complement (2n = 14 = 12 + XY/XX; male/female sex chromosomes), male meiosis behaviour, heterochromatin characterization, and frequency and distribution of chiasmata are described for the first time in specimens from a natural population of the giant water bug, Belostoma candidulum Montandon, 1903 (Heteroptera: Belostomatidae) from Argentina. To date, specimens of B. candidulum have been reported by other authors in a sample from a natural population from Brazil. Our results demonstrate that Argentinean and Brazilian populations have different diploid numbers and chromosomal features. During male meiosis, autosomal bivalents generally show a single chiasma, behave as telokinetic chromosomes (i.e. kinetic activity is restricted to terminal regions), and divide reductionally at anaphase I; in contrast, the sex chromosomes are achiasmatic, behave as univalents and segregate equationally at anaphase I. Among autosomal bivalents of B. candidulum, one is remarkably larger and may present one or two terminal chiasmata, showing rod, V-shaped and ring configurations. Here we propose a new mode of segregation for ring bivalents, since it is not essential that one of the chiasmata is released during anaphase I because alternative sites for microtubule attachment become functional for the normal chromosome segregation to the poles. Heterochromatin content is very scarce in specimens from Argentinean B. candidulum populations, revealing C-positive interstitial and terminal dots in three pairs of autosomes and C-blocks at both ends of X chromosome, whereas the Y chromosome is mainly C-positive. One of the C-positive bands from X and Y chromosomes is DAPI-dull/CMA-bright, which could represent the nucleolus organizing region (NOR) detected by fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH). The location of the NORs in both sex chromosomes allowed us to use them as a cytological marker to describe their behaviour during meiosis. Despite the fact that specimens from the Argentinean and Brazilian populations have been classified as a single species due to their morphological similarity, our results suggest that both populations are chromosomal races or even morphologically-identical cryptic species. The results obtained support the hypothesis that karyotype of B. candidulum originated through autosomal fusions and the fusion of the X and Y chromosomes with the ancestral NOR-autosomal pair. Lastly, the genus Belostoma represents an excellent model for assessing the main mechanisms involved in the karyotype evolution in organisms with holokinetic chromosomes, from which inferences may be made concerning its broader ecology and evolution.

Among animal constructions, the orb webs of spiders are perfect geometrical architectural models. Webs are constructed by means of a succession of behaviours, which are often considered as instinctive and stereotyped. Anomalies in web structure are considered to be a consequence of variability in behaviour. In order to assess the variability in web structure, the spider Zygiella x-notata was allowed to build webs in the laboratory under standardized conditions. Webs (n = 127) were examined for anomalies, which were defined as modifications in the geometrical structure. Ten anomalies in the structure of webs produced by females, aged from 16 to 21 days after their adult moult, are described. The frequency of anomalies per web varies from 5 to 98. A very low percentage of the spiral elements of a web (less than 5%) were affected. Anomalies in the radii were less numerous (mean = 3 ± 3) than those in the sticky spiral (mean = 21 ± 11). Anomalies in the sticky spiral were different and more frequent in the peripheral than central parts of the webs. They were also relatively more numerous in the upper than in the lower part of the webs. Total number of anomalies was positively correlated with particular web characteristics (capture area, length of capture thread, width of the lower part of the web and mean distance between two spiral turns in the lower part) but not to the physical characteristics of the spiders (mass and size). Our results indicate that the orb webs of spiders, which are considered to be perfect geometrical structures, include anomalies mainly in the structure of the sticky spiral. These anomalies were the result of variability in behaviour during web building. In conclusion, their identification and description enable one to use them in spider webs as an index of behavioural variability.

Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) is one of the most harmful plant viruses and one of its most important vectors is the western flower thrips [Frankliniella occidentalis Pergande (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)]. Recently, we reported the close association of Erwinia sp. gut bacteria with this species of thrips. The first instar larvae acquire these bacteria from their food source. A high proportion of adult western flower thrips transmit TSWV after acquiring the virus during the first larval stage when there are no bacteria in their gut. A considerably lower proportion of adults that acquire the virus early in the second instar transmit virus and none of those exposed to virus late on in the second instar do so. The highest prevalence and total number of symbiotic bacteria are recorded in the guts of second instar thrips. This leads to the hypothesis that the build up of bacteria in the gut reduces the acquisition of TSWV, resulting in a lower capacity to transmit the virus. To test this hypothesis, the transmission of this virus by symbiotic and aposymbiotic adult thrips of the NL3 population was studied. Comparison of virus transmission by adult thrips, the larvae of which either had or lacked gut bacteria and were exposed to virus in either the first or second instar, revealed no difference in the ability of symbiotic and aposymbiotic adults to transmit this virus. We conclude that virus transmission is not affected by the number of the symbiotic bacteria Erwinia sp. present in the gut of thrips larvae.

Ant-like stone beetles (Coleoptera: Scydmaenidae) include more than 4,850 described species in about 90 genera maintained as a separate cosmopolitan family since 1815. Recent authors have hypothesised that Scydmaenidae might be rooted deep inside rove-beetles (Staphylinidae). To test this hypothesis we analysed 206 parsimoniously informative larval and adult morphological characters scored for 38 taxa. Strict consensus topologies from the shortest trees in all 12 analyses consistently placed Scydmaenidae as sister to (Steninae + Euaesthetinae) in a monophyletic Staphylinine Group (with or without Oxyporinae). The single fully resolved and most consistently supported topology maintains a monophyletic Staphylinine Group consisting of Oxyporinae + (Megalopsidiinae + (("Scydmaenidae" + (Steninae + Euaesthetinae)) + (Leptotyphlinae + (Pseudopsinae + (Paederinae + Staphylininae))))); Solierius lacks larval data and is ambiguously placed within the Group. Eight analyses of variably aligned 18S rDNA data for 93 members of Staphylinoidea under parsimony, neighbour-joining and Bayesian approaches were markedly inconsistent, although partly congruent with the Scydmaenidae + (Steninae + Euaesthetinae) hypothesis. Our results strongly suggest that ant-like stone beetles do not form an independent family, but are morphologically modified members of Staphylinidae and, consequently, should be treated as a 32nd recent subfamily within the megadiverse Staphylinidae sensu latissimo. Formal taxonomic acts are: Scydmaeninae Leach, 1815, status novus (= Scydmaenidae Leach, 1815); Scydmaenitae Leach, 1815, status novus (= Scydmaeninae Leach, 1815); Mastigitae Fleming, 1821, status novus (= Mastiginae Fleming, 1821); Hapsomelitae Poinar & Brown, 2004, status novus (= Hapsomelinae Poinar & Brown, 2004). The family Staphylinidae sensu latissimo becomes the largest in Coleoptera and in the whole of the Animal Kingdom, with 55,440 described species (extant plus extinct), thus surpassing Curculionidae with an estimated 51,000 described species.

The African genus Figura Ukrainsky, 2006 is revised. A detailed redescription of its morphology is presented. Three new species are described, F. bitalensis sp. n., F. lineata sp. n. and F. ruwenzorica sp. n. All species are illustrated. A key to all species and a map showing the distribution of the genus Figura are provided.

A number of aphid species have been shown to produce winged dispersal morphs in the presence of natural enemies. Previous studies tested specialized aphid predators such as ladybirds or lacewing larvae. We confronted colonies of pea aphids with the polyphagous rove beetles, Drusilla canaliculata and Tachyporus hypnorum. For both predators we found that the percentage of winged morphs increased in predator-attacked pea aphid colonies compared to a control. The behaviour of the two rove beetles species was noticeably different. D. canaliculata mostly foraged on the ground and rarely on the plant, while T. hypnorum was almost exclusively observed on the plants, causing a higher number of aphids to drop to the ground, which resulted in a stronger increase in winged morph production. Our results clearly show that not only monophagous aphid predators but also more polyphagous insect predators, which include aphids in their diet, can induce aphids to produce winged morphs.

The pine bark beetle, Dendroctonus armandi, is a native pest restricted to forests in the Qinling Mountains in China. There was an outbreak of this species there that affected over 0.36 million hectares of pine forest. We hypothesized that there are differences between the numbers of beetles captured by traps baited with various combinations of candidate semiochemicals extracted from the hindguts of D. armandi. In order to determine whether a better operational lure could be developed for D. armandi, we analyzed the volatiles in extracts of the hindgut of D. armandi and tested various combinations of candidate semiochemicals. The GC-MS and GC-FID analyses of volatiles in the extracts of the hindguts of D. armandi collected at different stages of the attack revealed that they are mainly a-pinene, b-caryophyllene and (+)-3-carene with minor amounts of myrcene, limonene, verbenol and verbenone. We tested various combinations of these candidate semiochemicals in order to determine an optimal blend. Our results suggest that the addition of b-caryophyllene to either a-pinene, or blends of a-pinene and other candidate semiochemicals, significantly enhanced the attractiveness of the lures for D. armandi. Field trapping experiments indicated that the blends that included b-caryophyllene, myrcene and other candidate semiochemicals resulted in significantly higher trap catches (161-243% higher) than a-pinene alone. Therefore, a simple lure consisting of a-pinene and b-caryophyllene would be an optimal blend for D. armandi. We conclude that this blend of semiochemicals may provide a better method of reducing the numbers of D. armandi in forest ecosystem.

Currently it remains difficult to obtain robust microsatellite markers for Lepidoptera. In an attempt to overcome the problems associated with developing microsatellite markers for this insect order we combined (i) biotin-enrichment protocol, (ii) next generation pyrosequencing (through 454 GS-FLX Titanium technology) and (iii) the use of individuals collected from eight geographically distant European populations representing three subspecies of Euphydryas aurinia. Out of 96 stringently designed primer pairs, 12 polymorphic microsatellite loci amplified without obvious evidence of null alleles in eight individuals from different subspecies. Between five and seven of these loci showed full within population applicability and three revealed to be robust and transferable between populations and sub-species, providing a first step towards the development of a valuable and robust tool for studying conservation issues and evolution in E. aurinia populations. Nevertheless, as in most studies dealing with Lepidoptera microsatellites, null alleles were detected in most of the developed markers. Our results emphasize the need for further research in order to better understand the complex evolution and organization of Lepidopteran genomes.

Larvae of the stag beetle, Dorcus rectus, feed on decaying wood, which they digest with the aid of symbiotic yeasts; however, they can be successfully reared on artificial diets containing only fungal tissue. In this study we tested whether D. rectus larvae can utilize fungal cell walls, which are an insoluble component of mycelium. Lyophilized Bjerkandera adusta mycelium cultured in potato-dextrose liquid medium consisted of a 47.6% hot-water insoluble fraction by mass, which contains 53.7% of the total nitrogen in the mycelium. D. rectus larvae that hatched from surface-sterilized eggs were reared for 14 days on agar-based diets containing either the soluble fraction, insoluble fraction or both, extracted from 100 mg of mycelium. The larvae increased in mass most on the mixed diet, and there was no difference in their growth on the mixed and positive control diets. Both the soluble and insoluble fractions improved larval growth compared to the negative control diet; however, the growth rates were much lower than those expected from the nitrogen dose-growth response curve obtained in a previous study. Addition of b-chitin to the soluble fraction did not positively affect larval growth. Therefore, we conclude that (1) D. rectus larvae need both the soluble and insoluble fractions of mycelium and (2) the larvae digest the insoluble fraction using their own enzymes.

The Niobe Fritillary, Argynnis niobe, is a habitat specialist and as a consequence is highly endangered in contemporary Europe. To investigate its genetic diversity and population structure, 10 polymorphic microsatellite loci were developed and characterized, using a recently developed pyrosequencing method. The number of alleles per locus ranged from 2 to 21, and the observed and expected heterozygosities varied from 0.17 to 0.53 and from 0.24 to 0.92, respectively. These loci were also successfully used to study the genetic diversity of a closely related species, the High Brown Fritillary, Argynnis adippe, and will be used in future population structure studies of both these species.

Reduced oviposition by ladybirds in the presence of tracks of fourth instar larvae owing to the presence of oviposition deterring pheromones is well established across many genera. However, deterrence, if any, by other life stages has not been well investigated, in particular the effect of conspecific presence. The present study investigates the effects of conspecific presence and semiochemicals of conspecific life stages (eggs, fourth instar larvae, pupae, adult males and females) on oviposition by five ladybird (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) species, viz. Coccinella septempunctata, Coccinella transversalis, Cheilomenes sexmaculata, Propylea dissecta and Anegleis cardoni. Results reveal that the presence of life stages inhibits oviposition and the inhibition is density-dependent, although the degree of inhibition is species-specific. Surface semiochemicals of eggs and larval and adult tracks also show density-dependent inhibitory effects. Moreover, the semiochemicals in tracks (oviposition deterring pheromones) and egg surface semiochemicals are not similar, indicating semiochemical parsimony. Of all species tested, C. transversalis and C. septempunctata were the most and the least responsive to both conspecific presence and semiochemicals, respectively.

Wolbachia is a maternally transmitted intracellular symbiont which causes reproductive distortions in the arthropods it infects. In recent years there has been an increasing interest in using Wolbachia as a potential tool for biological control by genetic manipulation of insect pests. In the present paper we report Wolbachia infection in several Trissolcus wasps (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) which are important egg parasitoids of the sunn pest, Eurygaster integriceps Puton (Heteroptera: Scutellaridae). We used DNA sequence data for a gene encoding a surface protein of Wolbachia (wsp) not only to confirm Wolbachia infection but also to discriminate Wolbachia strains. Phylogenetic analyses indicated that Wolbachia strains in Trissolcus species were closely related to one another and belonged to supergroup B. Determination of the infection status of various populations, the possible role of Wolbachia in causing the incompatibility and knowledge of the reproductive compatibility of Trissolcus populations is important for the success of parasitoids in sunn pest management.

Cities contain only a low representation of natural and semi-natural habitats, existing in fragments surrounded by built-up areas. In 2003-2004, we surveyed butterflies and Zygaenidae moths in 21 reserves and 4 parks within the city of Prague, Czech Republic, situated from the periphery to city centre. A total of 85 species (47% of the Czech fauna of the study groups) was detected, 22 of them being of conservation concern. Ordination analyses of the local assemblages revealed that the richest sites were large, situated far from the city centre, on alkaline bedrocks, south- to southwest oriented, and hosting high numbers of vegetation types and vascular plant species. We then used generalised linear models to fit responses of individual species to the main ordination gradient, corresponding to increasing urbanisation. Out of 60 species that met criteria for the modelling, none responded positively to urbanisation. Twenty displayed negative linear response; these urban avoiders contained a surplus of mesophilous species presumably preferring rural landscapes. Further 29 species (suburban adaptable) responded in domed manners, peaking at the city periphery. Prevailing among them were xerophilous specialists inhabiting large grassland reserves at the Prague outskirts. Finally, eleven urban tolerant species did not respond to urbanisation at all, containing three highly mobile species, three xerothermophilous specialists, and five species utilising shrubs or trees and finding suitable conditions even in urban parks. Suburban adaptable butterflies apparently benefit from such suburban environments as gardens, road or railway verges, collectively increasing the connectivity of remnants of seminatural habitats. The fact that arboreal species persist even in urban parks, whereas common grassland species are absent there, implies that the quality of urban habitats might be increased by a more sensitive management of urban green spaces, such as leaving aside small temporary fallows or adapting lawns mowing schemes.

Forest edges are essential to the maintenance of biodiversity at the landscape level. According to the edge effect hypothesis, diversity is higher in an edge than in adjacent areas. We tested the edge effect hypothesis for carabids and staphylinids in an oak forest-forest edge-grassland complex in the Hajdúság Landscape Protection Area (Hungary). The habitat types were as follows: (1) a closed oak forest with shrubs and herbaceous plants, (2) a forest edge with extensive ground vegetation and shrub cover and (3) grassland with dense herbaceous vegetation. We collected data from 60 pitfall traps (2 spatial replicates × 3 habitats × 10 traps). The GLM results showed that the species richness of carabids was higher at the edge of the forest than in the grassland and forest interior; the number of carabid individuals was highest in the grassland. The number of staphylinids and their species richness were significantly lower in the grassland than in the forest edge and interior. The results of principal coordinates analysis showed that the assemblages of both taxa in the forest edge and interior were separated from the assemblage in the grassland area. There were significant characteristic species for the edge habitat, as revealed by the IndVal (indicator species analysis) method. Our findings suggest that forest edges play a vital role in the maintenance of the diversity of carabid and staphylinid assemblages.

Linear landscape elements are generally considered beneficial for promoting the movements of species between isolated habitats. However, relatively little consideration has been given to the effect of interconnections (nodes) between these elements: e.g. a simple linear element offers limited options for movement, whereas a network of such structures provides an exponential increase in potential pathways. In this pilot study we compared two experimental landscapes (single versus a lattice of four interconnected linear elements) in terms of their effect on the movement of males of Roesel's bush-cricket (Metrioptera roeseli) (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae). Emigration of released bush-crickets from experimental landscapes was greater if there was a single rather than a lattice of linear elements (corridors). In the landscape with a lattice of corridors, 50% of the bush-crickets changed their direction of movement at nodes at least once. There was also evidence that nodes were attractive to bush-crickets; a higher proportion of individuals were found in and around nodes than in adjoining corridors, with the strength of this effect (i.e. aggregation at nodes) increasing with time. Thus nodes may not only affect the direction of movement but may also act as a local attractant. These effects may have an important role in the movement of species and their success in colonizing fragmented landscapes. These results indicate that in future landscape planning more consideration should be given to the connectivity between linear landscape elements as it is likely to be important in determining the movement and distribution of species.