Glacial retreat creates new habitat which is colonized by plants and animals during the process of primary succession. Traditionally, invertebrate succession along the glacier forelands has been spatially and temporally described by the following predictors: species richness, diversity/similarity indices and species traits. In this paper another approach is used and applied to carabid beetle assemblages in two alpine glacier forelands. It utilizes mean individual biomass (MIB), which is considered by several authors to be a good indicator of habitat successional stages. MIB increased with time since deglaciation and this is related to species turnover along the glacier forelands. Specifically, MIB is able to separate early from late successional stages. The former are characterized by carabid assemblages with low MIB values and species typical of pioneer habitats, while the latter are characterized by carabid assemblages with high MIB values and species typical of stable and mature habitats. Therefore, MIB seems to be a sensitive indicator of carabid beetle successional stages also along the glacier forelands.

The poplar lace bug, Monosteira unicostata (Mulsant & Rey), is one of the most important pests of almond trees in the Mediterranean area. The developmental times and survival of the immature stages of this tingid were determined at 16, 19, 22, 25, 28, 31, 34, 35.5, 37 and 39°C, 60 ± 10% relative humidity and under a 16L : 8D photoperiod. At 16 and 39°C, 100% mortality was recorded during immature development, with the egg, first and second nymphal instars the most susceptible. The lowest mortality was recorded at 28°C (9.8%). As temperature increased, the total developmental period decreased and the shortest duration was recorded at 34°C (12.1-12.2 d). At 37°C, the developmental time was slightly longer (12.5-13.0 d). The thermal requirement for complete development, from egg to adult, was 229.2 DD. Several non-linear models were fitted to the developmental rate data recorded for the range of temperatures tested. Selection criteria indicated that the Lactin model best described the relationship between developmental rate and temperature. It predicted lower and upper thermal thresholds for the complete preimaginal period of 14.8 and 39.1°C, respectively. Models were validated by comparing their predictions for the total preimaginal period with the developmental times recorded at three different fluctuating temperature regimes. The Lactin model again best fitted the actual durations recorded. This model could be used in IPM programs for predicting the moment of occurrence of the most damaging generations of this species.

The oldest butterfly fossil known, which was formed about 55 Ma in what is now Denmark, is described. The fragments of its forewing venation indicates it belongs to the Hesperiidae. Further reconstruction indicates that it fits in the Coeliadinae and is close to the extant genera Hasora and Burara. It is here described as Protocoeliades kristenseni gen. et sp. n. It is the first butterfly fossil found on a continent (Europe) where its closest relatives do not currently occur. Its position on the phylogenetic tree of the Coeliadinae and its importance in understanding the time dimension in the evolution of butterflies, and their ecological and biogeographic implications are discussed.

Parasitoid females may adjust offspring sex allocation according to the number and quality of hosts available. Because in solitary species only one offspring survives per host, already parasitized hosts are of low quality and generally rejected. Superparasitism (i.e., sequential oviposition by the same or different females) results in aggressive interactions and competition for nutritional resources among larvae. We examined variations in the offspring sex ratio of Dendrocerus carpenteri (Curtis) (Hymenoptera: Megaspilidae), a solitary ectoparasitoid developing as a hyperparasitoid on the prepupae and pupae of primary aphid parasitoids inside mummified aphids. Mated females produced a female-biased sex ratio of 0.433 (proportion of sons) when caged singly and provided with 12 mummies for 2 h; they parasitized an average of four mummies/h and rarely superparasitized. Superparasitism increased when two females were caged together and provided with 12 mummies, from 1.18 to 1.24 and 1.38 eggs/host parasitized in 1, 2 and 3 h, respectively. The offspring sex ratio became increasingly more female-biased with increase in superparasitism; however, sex ratio variations were not correlated with cohort size. One mated and one unmated female provided with 12 mummies and caged together for 1 h produced a mean cohort sex ratio of 0.645, which differed from the one predicted (0.717) by an algebraic model incorporating the assumptions that both females contribute equal numbers of offspring and that the mated female does not change her offspring-sex allocation strategy. The observed shift in the cohort sex ratio to an increased female-bias indicates that mated females of D. carpenteri change their behaviour when encountering parasitized mummies or a conspecific competitor in the same patch. By depositing fertilized rather than unfertilized eggs, a female can increase the proportion of her daughters among parasitoids competing for a diminishing host supply.

Two blacklight traps were operated in a non-agricultural setting in Cary, North Carolina, USA, from spring through fall in 2004 and 2005 and all Coccinellidae collected and identified. More than 1300 lady beetles were collected in each of the two years, with Harmonia axyridis dominant (> 98%) and collected consistently over the course of the trapping period. Although other coccinellid species were observed in the vicinity of the traps during photophase, their appearance in blacklight traps was negligible. Harmonia axyridis exhibited a distinct diel periodicity in appearance at the traps, beginning approximately an hour after sunset and ending about midnight. Sunrise and sunset collections from flight interference and sticky traps in a local alfalfa field suggest that H. axyridis may be more flight active during the scotophase than Coleomegilla maculata, Hippodamia convergens, and Coccinella septempunctata. This study supports the suggestion that blacklight traps give a biased depiction of coccinellid species composition in a given area, and indicates that seasonal and circadian thresholds for flight activity, phototaxis, or both in H. axyridis may diverge from those in most other Coccinellidae.

A new species of Isotomidae (Collembola) was collected from submerged stones on the edge of nine lakes on Tasmania's Central Highland Plateau. Because it did not comply fully with the characters of any existing genus, a new genus, Chionobora gen. n. is erected for it here. An Antarctic species, Desoria klovstadi (Carpenter), has characters which conform with the new genus so is formally transferred to the new genus here. The Antarctic Continent and Tasmania were last in proximity 60 million years b.p. so it is suggested both species are relicts persisting in probable ice-free refugia during glacial cycles. Gut contents of specimens of the new species exclusively contained diatoms in various stages of digestion and the species appears to graze on aquatic macrophytes, a feeding habit not recorded before for Collembola. We note the high numbers of endemic invertebrate taxa of restricted distributions in cold habitats of southern regions compared to warmer regions and stress their conservation values and threats to their populations.

Ophraella communa (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) is an oligophagous herbivorous beetle that feeds on Ambrosia artemisiifolia. It is native to North America, but was accidentally introduced into Japan in 1995 and Europe in 2013. We analyzed partial DNA sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase II gene for O. communa collected from 29 locations in the United States, Japan and Italy. Overall, the results of our analyses indicate that the introduced Japanese populations have lower genetic variation than the native populations. The sequences for the Italian specimens did not share haplotypes with Japanese specimens. These results indicate that the introduced Japanese populations originated from a single introduction, and that the Italian and Japanese populations have different origins.

The patterns of seasonal activity, sex and age structure, reproductive characteristics and overwintering distribution of Amara fulva were studied in the southwest forest zone of the East European plain. A total of 1212 adults (664 males and 548 females) and 38 larvae were collected using pitfall traps. All adults were dissected to determine their reproductive condition. 185 larvae and 5 adults were collected by sampling soil. Adults of A. fulva were active from the first half of June until October with a single peak of activity in August. From June only postgenerative and newly emerged beetles were caught in traps. Immature and mature adults were recorded from the second half of July. At the end of August, more than 90% of the population was represented made up of mature adults. Immature individuals were trapped up until October after which they overwintered. Oviposition period lasted 11 weeks (from the mid-July to the end of September). Maximum number of mature eggs in ovaries was recorded in the second half of August. Larvae of A. fulva were caught from the second half of August to October and the peak in their subsoil activity was recorded in the first half of September. The life cycle of A. fulva is described as facultatively-biennial. Overwintering larvae and adults occurred in different parts of the floodplain. Larvae preferred to overwinter in soil under Persicaria maculosa near the edge of a river, while adults overwintered far from water and, rarely under tussock grasses on sandbars. The larvae of A. fulva cache the seeds of P. maculosa. Rearing A. fulva under field conditions revealed that this species takes 254-328 days complete its development, which includes the winter period.

Studies of prey suitability are needed to develop efficient mass rearing programs for generalist predators and to understand their potential contribution to integrated pest management. A laboratory study was conducted to evaluate the development and reproductive success of two predatory coccinellids, Oenopia conglobata (L.) and Cheilomenes sexmaculata (Fabricius), reared on diets of the common pistachio psyllid, Agonoscena pistaciae Burckhardt & Lauterer, the cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii (Glover) or a reference diet of Ephestia kuehniella Zeller eggs. Development and reproductive performance of the two coccinellids varied with diet, but egg fertility and immature survival did not. The developmental period (egg-adult) was shortest for both species on A. gossypii. This prey also yielded the shortest preoviposition period and greatest fecundity for C. sexmaculata. The psyllid diet was superior for reproduction in O. conglobata. For both predators, eggs of E. kuehniella were a better diet for development than for reproduction. Life table data indicated that the arboreal O. conglobata was better adapted to A. pistaciae on pistachio trees and might be a more effective biocontrol agent for this pest, despite the fact that C. sexmaculata had a higher intrinsic rate of increase on all diets.

Macrolophus pygmaeus (Hemiptera: Miridae) is an important predator of pests of horticultural crops and here its ability as a predator of Acyrthosiphon pisum (Hemiptera: Aphididae) is addressed for the first time. The percentage predation of the different aphid instars and the number partially consumed were studied. Our results, obtained using choice and no-choice tests, revealed that M. pygmaeus caught and consumed more young than later instars of A. pisum, which confirms results of previous studies using other species of aphids. We also studied the interactions between predators (male/female) foraging in the same patch. When the prey/predator ratio is kept constant at 10 : 1 the average percentage of aphids completely consumed by individual females or males does not change with increase in the number of foraging predators. However, the number of partially consumed aphids decreased when females shared the same patch. In contrast, there was an increase in the number of aphids partially consumed when two males shared the same patch. The results were discussed in terms of potential predator foraging strategies since intraspecific competition is a key factor modulating the dynamics of prey-predator systems.

All the information on the genus Eledonoprius was gathered to provide an up to-date overview of the geographical distribution and ecology of its species, and to assess their association with old-growth forests. Based on recent samples collected in deciduous forests and woodlands of Italy, the authors outline the habitats of these rare species and give an account of their trophic relations with bracket fungi. E. armatus is recorded in Central Italy and Sardinia for the first time; E. serrifrons is new to Basilicata (Southern Italy) and Syria.

This paper consists of an up to date annotated catalogue of the Afrotropical genera of Alticinae (Chrysomelidae), with biogeographical notes on the flea beetle fauna occurring in Sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar. The following new synonymies are proposed: Eugonotes Jacoby, 1897 (a subgenus of Sanckia Duvivier, 1891) = Brancucciella Medvedev, 1995 syn. n.; Amphimela Chapuis, 1875 = Dibolosoma Jacoby, 1897 syn. n.; Amphimela Chapuis, 1875 = Halticova Fairmaire, 1898 syn. n.; Podagrica Chevrolat, 1837 = Podagrixena Bechyné, 1968 syn. n.; Aphthona Chevrolat, 1837 = Pseudeugonotes Jacoby, 1899 syn. n.; Nisotra Baly, 1864 = Pseudonisotra Bechyné, 1968 syn. n. The following new combinations are proposed: Afrorestia sjostedti (Weise, 1910) comb. n. (from Crepidodera); Bechuana natalensis (Jacoby, 1906) comb. n. (from Ochrosis); Sesquiphaera natalensis (Jacoby, 1906) comb. n. (from Sphaeroderma). The genus Hildenbrandtina Weise, 1910 is trasferred from Galerucinae to Alticinae. New distributional data for many genera in the Afrotropical region is provided.

Abstract. Analyzing life history traits of butterfly communities and faunas frequently reveals a generalist-specialist continuum as the main gradient, where species using wide arrays of resources, with good dispersal ability and fast development are distinguished from those using specialised resources, having limited dispersal ability and developing slowly. To ascertain the validity of the generalist-specialist approach for an intermediately species-rich Central European fauna, we analyzed ten life history traits for 136 species of butterflies currently occurring in the Czech Republic, using principal correspondence analysis (PCA) and controlling for phylogeny. The main gradient extracted indeed revealed a generalist-specialist continuum, while the gradient perpendicular to the main axis distinguished between small-bodied polyvoltine species feeding on small herbaceous plants and large-bodied monovoltine species feeding on grasses or woody plants. We coin "constrained voltinism continuum" for the second gradient and argue that it reflects the effect of anti-herbivore strategies of larval host plants on butterfly development. The position of the butterflies in the PCA ordination mirrors the C-S-R (Competitors - Stress tolerators - Ruderals) strategies of their host plants. Butterflies that feed on C- and R-selected plants tend to be generalists, but differ in voltinism, whereas specialists tend to feed on S-selected plants. Regressing measures of current conservation status of individual species in the Czech Republic against the two extracted life history gradients yielded a significant but weak response for the generalist-specialist continuum and no response for the constrained voltinism continuum. The weak responses were due to a wide scatter of status measures among "mid generalists". The generalist-specialist continuum is hence a rather poor predictor of species conservation status. Species of high conservation concern are found either among specialists, or among mid generalists with low to intermediate values on the constrained voltinism axis.

Identifying the plants aphids have fed on can increase our understanding of their roles in food webs, and help in improving management and implementation control strategies in agricultural systems. Field sampling and laboratory experiments were carried out to determine the stable isotope ratios of carbon (δ¹³C) and nitrogen (δ¹⁵ N) in three different varieties of cotton and the aphids (Aphis gossypii) that fed on these varieties. The results were used to test the hypothesis that stable isotope signatures of aphids that have fed on different varieties of cotton differ. Two-dimensional plots of stable isotope signatures for aphids and the cotton varieties they fed on displayed a non-overlapping pattern, indicating that stable isotope signatures of the three cotton varieties and the aphids that fed on them differed. The results indicate that stable isotope analysis can potentially be used to identify aphids that have fed on different varieties of cotton. When the stable isotope signatures of diets clearly differ then it is highly likely the consumers will be distinguishable.

Bactrocera correcta (Bezzi) is among the most destructive fruit fly pests of the genus Bactrocera. This species infests 62 species of plants belonging 30 families, many of which are commercially important. In this study, the genetic structure, diversity and demographic history of B. correcta in Thailand were inferred from mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) sequences. High genetic diversity was recorded in the 171 samples collected from 15 locations. This was due largely to the existence of two divergent lineages (I, II) revealed by median joining (MJ) network analysis. Genetic structure analysis revealed an overall low level of genetic differentiation between populations suggesting that the flies can move freely across geographic regions. Because the host plants are commonly grown in Thailand, continuity of habitats is the factor most likely responsible for the genetic homogeneity. In addition, the recent population history could also be a factor that contributed to the overall low level of the genetic structure. Mismatch distribution analysis as well as Tajima's D and Fu's F_S tests detected evidence of recent demographic expansion dating back to the end of the last glaciations.

Silkworm is a poikilothermic insect, whose growth and development is significantly affected by high temperatures. The current study aimed to identify bivoltine breeds tolerant of the high temperature conditions that occur in the tropics. Percentage pupation at high temperatures and heat shock responses of silkworms were used as measures of thermotolerance. Thermotolerance of 20 silkworm breeds was assessed by rearing them at 36°C. Based on percentage pupation, three breeds, namely Nistari (multivoltine), SK4C (bivoltine) and CSR2 (bivoltine) were designated tolerant, moderately tolerant and susceptible, respectively. To understand the heat shock responses and the molecular mechanisms underlying thermotolerance, the tissue specific expression profiles of the nine heat shock protein (Hsp) genes were determined in the three breeds after a heat shock of 1 h at 36°C and a 2 h recovery period by performing real-time qPCR. The level of expression of Hsp genes was significantly increased in heat shocked tissues and gradually decreased during the recovery period. The greatest increase in the expression of Hsp genes was recorded in fat body followed by mid gut and silk gland. Of the three breeds, Nistari showed the highest expression of Hsp genes and SK4C a moderate expression relative to CSR2. The qPCR results showed that the transcript levels of sHsp20.4 and 20.1, and Hsp70 were increased by 10.3, 9.7 and 2.3 times, respectively, in Nistari compared to CSR2. Similarly the expression of sHsp20.4 and 20.1, and Hsp70 were increased by 3.5, 2.3 and 1.5 times, respectively in SK4C compared to CSR2. The expression levels of Hsps during heat shock corresponded to the percentage pupation recorded for the three breeds at a high temperature. It is suggested that the Hsps and their levels of expression may play an important role in increasing the survival of silkworm larvae at high temperatures. This study identified SK4C as a bivoltine breed, which is highly tolerant of high temperature measured in terms of percentage pupation (of the bivoltine breeds) and higher levels of expression of Hsp genes compared to CSR2. The importance of SK4C as a thermotolerant bivoltine parent for breeding new bivoltine hybrids tolerant of high temperatures is discussed.

Animals, including human beings, tend to respond more strongly to stimuli that are associated with the highest relative rewards. This applies not only to food rewards but also to reproductive success. In the present review article this issue is discussed for insects in connection with intersexual communication and flower-visiting behaviour. Implications of the preference for supernormal visual releasing stimuli are examined from a sensory and evolutionary perspective, including a consideration of the choice of potential mates and recognition of the most rewarding flowers.

Interactions between herbivorous insects and their parasitoids occur in highly structured and complex environments. Habitat structure can be an important factor affecting ecological interactions between different trophic levels. In this study the influence of plant architecture and surrounding vegetation structure on the interaction between the tansy leaf beetle, Galeruca tanaceti L. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) and its egg parasitoid, Oomyzus galerucivorus Hedqvist (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), was investigated at two small spatial scales in the field. It was expected that high and structurally complex plants or vegetation represent an enemy free space for the herbivore by making host search more difficult for the parasitoid. At the scale of individual plants, plant height had a positive influence on herbivore oviposition and egg clutch height a negative impact on parasitism. In addition, the beetle was more likely to oviposit on simple plants than on plants with branches, while the parasitoid remained unaffected by the degree of branching. At the microhabitat scale (r = 0.1 m around an oviposition site), both height and density of the vegetation affected beetle oviposition positively and egg parasitism negatively. The herbivore and its parasitoid, therefore, were influenced in opposite ways by habitat structure at both spatial scales investigated, suggesting the existence of an enemy free space for the herbivores' eggs on tall plants and in tall and complex vegetation. This study indicates that structural components of the environment are important for interactions among organisms of different trophic levels.

Boundaries between habitats are usually accompanied by transitions in the diversity and structural complexity of insect assemblages. Edge effects on carabid beetle assemblages across forest-meadow ecotones in Dinaric beech-fir forests were determined in the Gorski Kotar region of western Croatia. Carabid beetles were sampled using pitfall traps set along gradients extending 60 m from the forest edge into its interior and 60 m into the meadow. Embedded forest edges were greater than 100 years old and had a similar composition and structure of vegetation to that in the adjacent forest. A total of 20,526 individuals belonging to 66 carabid beetle species were recorded. Carabid assemblages in the ecotones were more similar to those in the forest interiors than those in the meadows. The classical edge effect hypothesis was not supported, since the ecotones were less diverse than the meadows, while the carabid assemblages of the forest interiors were the least diverse. Soil temperature, soil humidity and light intensity did not differ significantly between the ecotones and the forest interior. Therefore, embedded forest edges reduced the microclimate edge effect by providing stable microclimatic conditions for carabid assemblages similar to those in the forest interior. In addition, this enabled forest specialists and generalists to occur right up to the forest edge and maintain stable populations in the ecotone. On the other hand, ecotones acted as filters for certain forest generalist species and true barriers for most open-habitat species. This study confirmed that the structure and ages of the vegetation at edges may play a key role in determining the spatial pattern of carabid beetles across forest-meadow ecotones.

In a recent 3-gene phylogeny of the trichopteran subfamily Drusinae Banks 1916, molecular data clearly correlated with the morphology and feeding ecology of larvae. The largest of three main groups, the Drusinae grazer clade, exhibits an unusual larval feeding ecology for Limnephilidae, and is the most diverse group. In this paper we describe four previously unknown Drusinae larvae included in this clade: Drusus balcanicus Kumanski, 1973 (micro-endemic to Eastern Balkans), Drusus botosaneanui Kumanski, 1968 (Dinaric Western Balkans, Hellenic and Eastern Balkan, Asia Minor), Drusus serbicus Marinković-Gospodnetić, 1971 (micro-endemic to Dinaric Western Balkans), and Drusus tenellus (Klapálek, 1898) (Carpathians, Dinaric Eastern Balkans). Characteristically, the larvae of these species have toothless mandibles typical of the Drusinae grazer clade. Larvae and adults were unambiguously associated using a phylogenetic analysis based on two mitochondrial [mtCOI, mtLSU (=16S) rDNA] and two nuclear genes (nuWG, nuCAD). In addition, information on the morphology of the larvae is given and the diagnostic features necessary for identification are illustrated.

Introduction of non-native species of plants affects the existence and feeding preferences of herbivorous insects. The bird cherry ermine moth (Yponomeuta evonymellus) is considered a typical monophagous insect, which feeds only on bird cherry (Prunus padus) leaves. However, in recent years, we have observed Y. evonymellus larvae feeding on leaves of the non-native (in Europe) and highly invasive black cherry (Prunus serotina). We hypothesized that this insect can feed on P. serotina leaves with no negative effects on its growth and development and that the main reason why it does not accept this plant as a host is the phenological difference between the two species of cherry. Moving individuals of the three larval instars (L1, L2 and L3) from bird cherry to black cherry did not affect the percentage of adults that emerged from the pupae or the masses of the moths. In addition, in one experiment, the moths were heavier and the percentage parasitized was lower on P. serotina than on P. padus. Thus, the leaves of black cherry were at least as good a food source as P. padus for Y. evonymellus. During the feeding period, there were low concentrations of defense compounds (phenolics and condensed tannins) in the leaves of both species. However, it is likely that the low success of Y. evonymellus in infesting P. serotina is due to spring frosts and heavy rains, which are deadly for larvae in an early stage of development on black cherry. In the field these weather conditions resulted in a very high mortality of larvae in our experiment. In conclusion, the use of bird cherry as a host by Y. evonymellus is mainly determined by its phenology.

The Asian corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis, is one of the most important pests of maize (Zea mays) in China. However, the mechanism by which intercropping sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) and maize controls this pest via compounds rinsed from leaf surfaces is still unclear. Electrophysiological and oviposition responses of the Asian corn borer to compounds rinsed from leaf surfaces of sugarcane and maize were studied. Coupled gas chromatographic-electroantennographic detection (GC-EAD) analyses revealed that O. furnacalis responds to 21 compounds, which are present in both the compounds rinsed from leaf surfaces of sugarcane and maize. The effects of these compounds in concentrations of 5 × 10^-3 g/mL or 5 × 10^-4 g/mL on female oviposition behaviour were tested. They were attracted to oviposit on substrates coated with most of the test compounds, except nonanal. It is suggested that the compounds from the leaf surfaces of sugarcane induced O. furnacalis females to oviposit because most of them are similar to maize's leaf surface compounds, which results in a reduction in the number of egg masses laid on maize leaves.

The influence of female mating status on ovarian development of the ladybird, Propylea dissecta (Mulsant) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), was investigated under laboratory conditions. We assessed the extent to which ovariole development was affected by mating and for that we initially created a base line by observing age specific ovariole development. Results show that the number of follicles in each ovariole increased with the age of both virgin and mated females up to the age of 3 days, thereafter, no increase in number of follicles was recorded. Ovariole width also increased with age in both virgin and mated females up to 4 days, thereafter, no increase in ovariole width was recorded. The ovariole width of mated females was significantly greater than that of virgin females. Egg maturation and the egg load started to increase at the age of 8 days in virgin females. Thereafter, it increased with increase in female age. While in mated females, immature eggs were recorded in their ovarioles from the age of 1 to 2 days. In mated females, however, the increase in the number of mature eggs per ovariole and egg load started when they were 3 days old. Egg load continuously increased with increasing female age.

The rich species pool in semi-natural grasslands is associated with high spatial and temporal heterogeneity. This empirical study is one of the first to jointly analyze the response of orders, individual species and functional richness of arthropods to particular management practices and to linear landscape features, such as strips of grass and belts of trees. Mostly it was the less mobile, flightless taxa that were negatively affected by immediate disturbance caused by mowing. At a larger time-scale, grasslands managed by mowing once every year, and especially by a combined regime of mowing and grazing, supported the highest species richness of butterflies and beetles. Most functional diversity measures reached maximum values soon after mowing. Both strips of grass and belts of trees substantially affected the invertebrate community structure as the majority of taxa were positively associated with these linear features. Based on our results, we propose postponing mowing to later in the year, mowing in gradual stages, maintaining uncut strips primarily along permanent landscape features and establishing both strips of grass and belts of trees in submontane grassland environments.

An invasive sawfly Aproceros leucopoda Takeuchi, 1939, which originates from East Asia, has colonized elms (Ulmus spp.) in Austria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and the Ukraine, at least since 2003. In Europe, the larvae can completely defoliate native and non-native elm trees and may cause at least partial dieback. Field observations indicate that elms are infested independent of their age and site characteristics. The life cycle of A. leucopoda is described based on material reared in Hokkaido, Japan. Parthenogenetic reproduction, short life cycle of summer generations and the ability to produce four generations per year result in the production of numerous progeny. The evolution of a seasonal dimorphism in head morphology, a simple cocoon that is attached directly to the host plant and a short period spent in the cocoon stage during summer, are putative apomorphies shared by Aproceros Takeuchi, 1939 and Aprosthema Konow, 1899. These traits reduce developmental costs and contribute to the proliferation of A. leucopoda. No specialized parasitoid, that can effectively reduce outbreaks of this species, is known. It is likely that this pest will spread into central and south-western Europe. Further monitoring of A. leucopoda is required to assess future range extensions in Europe, its exacerbating effect on Dutch elm disease and to find a suitable biocontrol agent. Concise keys to imaginal and larval stages are presented that will facilitate the identification of A. leucopoda.

Pitfall trapping is one of the most commonly used methods of sampling ground-dwelling arthropods. There are many studies on the effect of design of pitfall traps on their capture efficiency but, so far, none on the influence of the colour of the pitfall trap. In this study the abundances of seven invertebrate groups (Apidae, Araneae, Carabidae, Diptera, Formicidae, Isopoda, Vespinae) caught in pitfall traps of different colours (white, yellow, green, brown) at a dense and dry grassland site in Northwestern Germany were determined. White and yellow pitfall traps caught by far the highest numbers of individuals of Apidae, Araneae, Carabidae, Diptera and Formicidae. Isopoda were most abundant in the catches of green and brown traps. Differences among numbers caught were significant for Apidae, Araneae, Carabidae and Diptera. The effect of colour on the catches did not differ significantly between sites. Knowledge of the variation in the catching efficiency of differently coloured pitfall traps is important for designing invertebrate surveys, both from a scientific and ethical point of view.

The relationship between species richness of plants and animals and altitude can be either hump-shaped, a monotonic decrease or increase. In this study the altitudinal distribution of moths on one of the highest mountains in South Korea was investigated. Moths were captured using a UV-light trap from May to October in 2007 and 2008. This revealed that the relationship between the total numbers of moth species and individuals and altitude is hump-shaped. A significant relationship was also recorded between the size of the area at each altitude and moth abundance and richness. However, the evenness index yielded a consistent decrease with increase in altitude because of the dominance of few species at high altitudes. Non-metric multidimensional scaling identified two major axes for the moth assemblage on Mount Jirisan. The correlations between the axes and variables demonstrated that the first axis was strongly correlated with altitude and aspect and the second axis with forest and site location.

The plant stress and plant vigour hypotheses are competing paradigms pertaining to the preference and performance of herbivorous insects on their host plants. Tests of these hypotheses ideally require detailed information on aspects of soil nutrition, foliar nutrient levels and parameters of herbivore fitness, but such studies are uncommon. These hypotheses were tested using the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae), reared on its host plant, Brassica napus (L.), grown in an experimental system of five nutrient regimes. Different levels of fertilizer treatments significantly affected the nutrient content of B. napus foliage and this in turn affected the preference and performance of P. xylostella. Ovipositing females discriminated among host plants grown in soils subjected to different fertilizer treatments and selected plants on which pre-imaginal survival was highest, development fastest and longevity of the next generation of adults the longest, even when food was scarce. Plants subjected to herbivory by P. xylostella responded by producing elevated levels of some nutrients (e.g., sulphur), but other nutrient levels declined in infested leaves (e.g., nitrogen). Regardless of the rate of fertilizer application, plants compensated for herbivory by increasing root mass compared to un-infested control plants; plants grown in soils receiving the optimum quantity of fertilizer developed the most robust root systems when infested. The plant stress and the plant vigour hypotheses are likely to be at the opposite ends of a continuum of responses between insects and their host plants. Our investigations indicate a complex set of interactions involving both bottom-up and top-down effects, which interact to affect host plant quality, oviposition site selection by female herbivores and the fitness of their offspring.

Geographic isolation, altitude, climate, landscape and habitat are significant predictors of butterfly diversity in mountain ecosystems. Their diversity and its dependence on altitude, aspect (compass bearing) and biogeographic characteristics of the butterflies were surveyed on the karst mountain Biokovo in southern Croatia. The results affirm that there is a high diversity of butterflies in the study area and the species composition and biogeographic elements are more dependent on altitude than aspect of the mountain. The present study indicates that climate, relief and habitat preferences strongly influence the biogeographic features of species and the relationship between species richness per site and altitude, aspect and the altitude-aspect interaction.

This study was on the effect of three species of aphids (Aphis fabae, Macrosiphoniella sanborni, Brevicoryne brassicae) on the survival, growth and development of the immature stages of the aphidophagous coccinellids Coccinella septempunctata, Ceratomegilla undecimnotata, Propylea quatuordecimpunctata and Oenopia conglobata. The percentage survival was lowest, immature development most prolonged and the adults the lightest when these predators were fed on B. brassicae. In addition, C. septempunctata and C. undecimnotata performed better when fed on M. sanborni (74.1 and 72.0% total immature survival, respectively) than P. quatuordecimpunctata and O. conglobata (25.0 and 13.8% total immature survival, respectively). In addition, the host plant of A. fabae also had a significant effect on the performance of the predators. These coccinellids survived best, had shorter developmental times and were heavier as adults when fed on A. fabae reared on Vicia faba than on Phaseolus vulgaris. These results may be useful for improving the effectiveness of biological control practice and the production of coccinellids in an insectary.