Interactions between herbivorous insects and their parasitoids occur in highly structured and complex environments. Habitat structure can be an important factor affecting ecological interactions between different trophic levels. In this study the influence of plant architecture and surrounding vegetation structure on the interaction between the tansy leaf beetle, Galeruca tanaceti L. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) and its egg parasitoid, Oomyzus galerucivorus Hedqvist (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), was investigated at two small spatial scales in the field. It was expected that high and structurally complex plants or vegetation represent an enemy free space for the herbivore by making host search more difficult for the parasitoid. At the scale of individual plants, plant height had a positive influence on herbivore oviposition and egg clutch height a negative impact on parasitism. In addition, the beetle was more likely to oviposit on simple plants than on plants with branches, while the parasitoid remained unaffected by the degree of branching. At the microhabitat scale (r = 0.1 m around an oviposition site), both height and density of the vegetation affected beetle oviposition positively and egg parasitism negatively. The herbivore and its parasitoid, therefore, were influenced in opposite ways by habitat structure at both spatial scales investigated, suggesting the existence of an enemy free space for the herbivores' eggs on tall plants and in tall and complex vegetation. This study indicates that structural components of the environment are important for interactions among organisms of different trophic levels.

Boundaries between habitats are usually accompanied by transitions in the diversity and structural complexity of insect assemblages. Edge effects on carabid beetle assemblages across forest-meadow ecotones in Dinaric beech-fir forests were determined in the Gorski Kotar region of western Croatia. Carabid beetles were sampled using pitfall traps set along gradients extending 60 m from the forest edge into its interior and 60 m into the meadow. Embedded forest edges were greater than 100 years old and had a similar composition and structure of vegetation to that in the adjacent forest. A total of 20,526 individuals belonging to 66 carabid beetle species were recorded. Carabid assemblages in the ecotones were more similar to those in the forest interiors than those in the meadows. The classical edge effect hypothesis was not supported, since the ecotones were less diverse than the meadows, while the carabid assemblages of the forest interiors were the least diverse. Soil temperature, soil humidity and light intensity did not differ significantly between the ecotones and the forest interior. Therefore, embedded forest edges reduced the microclimate edge effect by providing stable microclimatic conditions for carabid assemblages similar to those in the forest interior. In addition, this enabled forest specialists and generalists to occur right up to the forest edge and maintain stable populations in the ecotone. On the other hand, ecotones acted as filters for certain forest generalist species and true barriers for most open-habitat species. This study confirmed that the structure and ages of the vegetation at edges may play a key role in determining the spatial pattern of carabid beetles across forest-meadow ecotones.

In a recent 3-gene phylogeny of the trichopteran subfamily Drusinae Banks 1916, molecular data clearly correlated with the morphology and feeding ecology of larvae. The largest of three main groups, the Drusinae grazer clade, exhibits an unusual larval feeding ecology for Limnephilidae, and is the most diverse group. In this paper we describe four previously unknown Drusinae larvae included in this clade: Drusus balcanicus Kumanski, 1973 (micro-endemic to Eastern Balkans), Drusus botosaneanui Kumanski, 1968 (Dinaric Western Balkans, Hellenic and Eastern Balkan, Asia Minor), Drusus serbicus Marinković-Gospodnetić, 1971 (micro-endemic to Dinaric Western Balkans), and Drusus tenellus (Klapálek, 1898) (Carpathians, Dinaric Eastern Balkans). Characteristically, the larvae of these species have toothless mandibles typical of the Drusinae grazer clade. Larvae and adults were unambiguously associated using a phylogenetic analysis based on two mitochondrial [mtCOI, mtLSU (=16S) rDNA] and two nuclear genes (nuWG, nuCAD). In addition, information on the morphology of the larvae is given and the diagnostic features necessary for identification are illustrated.

Introduction of non-native species of plants affects the existence and feeding preferences of herbivorous insects. The bird cherry ermine moth (Yponomeuta evonymellus) is considered a typical monophagous insect, which feeds only on bird cherry (Prunus padus) leaves. However, in recent years, we have observed Y. evonymellus larvae feeding on leaves of the non-native (in Europe) and highly invasive black cherry (Prunus serotina). We hypothesized that this insect can feed on P. serotina leaves with no negative effects on its growth and development and that the main reason why it does not accept this plant as a host is the phenological difference between the two species of cherry. Moving individuals of the three larval instars (L1, L2 and L3) from bird cherry to black cherry did not affect the percentage of adults that emerged from the pupae or the masses of the moths. In addition, in one experiment, the moths were heavier and the percentage parasitized was lower on P. serotina than on P. padus. Thus, the leaves of black cherry were at least as good a food source as P. padus for Y. evonymellus. During the feeding period, there were low concentrations of defense compounds (phenolics and condensed tannins) in the leaves of both species. However, it is likely that the low success of Y. evonymellus in infesting P. serotina is due to spring frosts and heavy rains, which are deadly for larvae in an early stage of development on black cherry. In the field these weather conditions resulted in a very high mortality of larvae in our experiment. In conclusion, the use of bird cherry as a host by Y. evonymellus is mainly determined by its phenology.

The Asian corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis, is one of the most important pests of maize (Zea mays) in China. However, the mechanism by which intercropping sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) and maize controls this pest via compounds rinsed from leaf surfaces is still unclear. Electrophysiological and oviposition responses of the Asian corn borer to compounds rinsed from leaf surfaces of sugarcane and maize were studied. Coupled gas chromatographic-electroantennographic detection (GC-EAD) analyses revealed that O. furnacalis responds to 21 compounds, which are present in both the compounds rinsed from leaf surfaces of sugarcane and maize. The effects of these compounds in concentrations of 5 × 10^-3 g/mL or 5 × 10^-4 g/mL on female oviposition behaviour were tested. They were attracted to oviposit on substrates coated with most of the test compounds, except nonanal. It is suggested that the compounds from the leaf surfaces of sugarcane induced O. furnacalis females to oviposit because most of them are similar to maize's leaf surface compounds, which results in a reduction in the number of egg masses laid on maize leaves.

The influence of female mating status on ovarian development of the ladybird, Propylea dissecta (Mulsant) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), was investigated under laboratory conditions. We assessed the extent to which ovariole development was affected by mating and for that we initially created a base line by observing age specific ovariole development. Results show that the number of follicles in each ovariole increased with the age of both virgin and mated females up to the age of 3 days, thereafter, no increase in number of follicles was recorded. Ovariole width also increased with age in both virgin and mated females up to 4 days, thereafter, no increase in ovariole width was recorded. The ovariole width of mated females was significantly greater than that of virgin females. Egg maturation and the egg load started to increase at the age of 8 days in virgin females. Thereafter, it increased with increase in female age. While in mated females, immature eggs were recorded in their ovarioles from the age of 1 to 2 days. In mated females, however, the increase in the number of mature eggs per ovariole and egg load started when they were 3 days old. Egg load continuously increased with increasing female age.

The rich species pool in semi-natural grasslands is associated with high spatial and temporal heterogeneity. This empirical study is one of the first to jointly analyze the response of orders, individual species and functional richness of arthropods to particular management practices and to linear landscape features, such as strips of grass and belts of trees. Mostly it was the less mobile, flightless taxa that were negatively affected by immediate disturbance caused by mowing. At a larger time-scale, grasslands managed by mowing once every year, and especially by a combined regime of mowing and grazing, supported the highest species richness of butterflies and beetles. Most functional diversity measures reached maximum values soon after mowing. Both strips of grass and belts of trees substantially affected the invertebrate community structure as the majority of taxa were positively associated with these linear features. Based on our results, we propose postponing mowing to later in the year, mowing in gradual stages, maintaining uncut strips primarily along permanent landscape features and establishing both strips of grass and belts of trees in submontane grassland environments.

Biological parameters of the woolly whitefly Aleurothrixus floccosus (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) and its parasitoid Cales noacki (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) were determined at 25.0 ± 2.0°C, 50.0 ± 10.0% RH and a photoperiod of 14L : 10D on three different Citrus host plants. The percentage survival of A. floccosus ranged between 40.23 and 44.44%. The highest mortality was recorded in the first nymphal instar with mortalities ranging between 36.36 and 39.39%. On C. aurantifolia the total development time was 39.83 ± 0.68 days and the pre-oviposition, oviposition and post-oviposition periods 2.45, 10.68 and 1.68 days, respectively. Adult longevity was 15.0 days and average fecundity 73.27 ± 9.07 eggs. For C. noacki the pre-oviposition period was 0.8 days, oviposition period 4.38 days and post-oviposition period < 1 day. Adult longevity of C. noacki was 5.18 days and average fecundity 31.25 ± 2.87 eggs. The intrinsic growth rate (r_m ) of C. noacki (0.160) was significantly greater ( p < 0.05) than that of A. floccosus (0.076). The value of the finite rate of growth (λ) was also significantly ( p < 0.05) greater for C. noacki (1.173) than for A. floccosus (1.079). The larger values of r_m and λ recorded for C. noacki under experimental conditions indicate that this aphelinid has the potential to decrease populations of A. floccosus.

Predatory carabid beetles are important for regulating prey abundance in terrestrial ecosystems. While surveys of carabid diet have revealed many insights into trophic interactions, the high species diversity and heterogeneous developmental stages of prey identified in the gut have made further advances difficult. In addition, the carabid gut contains partially digested and mainly soft tissue parts of the prey species, difficult to identify by traditional methods. Molecular gut content analysis (MGCA) avoids these disadvantages but to date has been limited primarily to revealing pest species in agricultural fields. Here we used MGCA to screen for the presence of Lepidoptera in carabid guts, in woodland ecosystems, in both Croatia and the UK. Data on carabids positive for Lepidoptera were compared with those from previous work on the same carabid assemblages, screened for earthworms, slugs, woodlice and springtails. In both locations, the prey group most frequently detected was earthworms, followed by slugs and Lepidoptera and then finally by woodlice and springtails. The composition of the diet changed with season, carabid sex, and carabid size. In both locations, Lepidoptera were the third most frequent prey, with 27% of carabids testing positive in Croatia and 20% in UK, suggesting that carabids could be significant predators of Lepidoptera in woodland ecosystems and may potentially play an important role in controlling moth pests.

Aphid honeydew is one of the main energy sources for various ants in the temperate zone, nevertheless relatively little is known about the organization of the work of honeydew foragers (aphid milkers). This study focuses on the honeydew collecting strategies used by different ants in steppe and forest multi-species communities in Western Siberia. The behaviour of marked foragers of 12 species (Formica - 7, Lasius - 2, Camponotus - 1, Myrmica - 2) was recorded. Depending on the degree of the aphid milker specialization and degree of protection of the aphids five honeydew collecting strategies of various complexity were distinguished: unspecialized foragers in (I) "unprotected" aphid colonies (attended by ants < 60% of time) and (II) "protected" colonies (attended > 95% of time); (III) low "professional" specialization (ants "on duty" constantly attending aphid colonies); (IV) medium and (V) high "professional" specialization (clear division of tasks: honeydew collecting by "shepherds" and protection of trophobionts by "guards"; and honeydew transportation by "transporters" in V). Task specialization of the honeydew foragers is facultative: different ant taxa demonstrate a certain range of the honeydew collecting strategies of different complexities (Formica - I-V, Lasius - I-II, Camponotus - III, Myrmica - I-II) depending on the needs of their colony. The strategy used by ants did not depend on the species of aphid attended, but is strongly dependent on the species of ant, their colony size, available food resources and seasonality. In summer, the aphid milker specialization becomes more complex as ant colony size increases at both intra- and inter-specific levels and when food is scarce. In autumn Formica s. str. ants, which have the most advanced foraging strategy, adopt a simpler honeydew collecting strategy. Overall, the variety of honeydew foraging strategies seems to reflect the unequal contribution of different ants in forming trophobiotic interactions with aphids.

Poecilus cupreus (L.) (Coleoptera: Carabidae) is a typical polyphagous predator species on arable lands. In this study, 11 polymorphic microsatellite markers were developed from genomic DNA of P. cupreus. Genotypes of 87 individuals sampled from three localities in Western France were analyzed to characterize the polymorphism at each locus. The number of alleles ranged from 3 to 20. All pairs of loci were in linkage equilibrium. The expected and observed heterozygosity ranged from 0.165 to 0.890 and 0.103 to 0.926, respectively. From the northern to the southern sites, six, three, and six loci showed significant deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, respectively. At one locus, null alleles were suspected as occuring at high frequency in the three populations. A weak genetic differentiation among populations was found, suggesting intense and large scale gene flow coupled with large population size in P. cupreus. These polymorphic microsatellite markers could be used in future population genetics studies of P. cupreus.

The ultrastructural and biochemical characteristics were studied in active and diapausing pupae of the horse chestnut leaf miner, Cameraria ohridella, collected in summer. The active pupae contained developing internal organs, while those in diapause mostly numerous non-differentiated cells packed with stored nutrients. These nutrients occurred in vacuoles as liquid material (lipids, proteins) or as reserve crystaloids (proteins). Triacylglycerols (TGs) were the main lipids stored by pupae and were more abundant in diapausing than active pupae. The amount of diacyglycerols (DGs) and phospholipids (PLs) was almost identical in both groups, which reflects the roles of these compounds in lipid transport and structure of cell membranes, respectively. A principal component analysis (PCA) indicated differences in the quality of the lipid compounds in both groups and that the TGs were mostly responsible for the difference. Polyunsaturated linolenic acid (18 : 3) was the most abundant fatty acid in both active and diapausing pupae, nevertheless its content was significantly higher in the former; the level of 7 fatty acids reached values higher than 1%. Differences in other nutrients were similar to those of TGs; higher contents of both glycogen and proteins were recorded in diapausing than active pupae. The results revealed significant differences between the two summer pupal forms of C. ohridella and furthered our understanding of the developmental strategy of this successful, invasive pest insect.

The present study describes changes in haemolymph ecdysteroid levels during the feeding phase of fifth instar larvae of Bombyx mori. A small and sharp peak in ecdysteroid level was recorded on day 4 when larvae had already reached the critical weight (2.76 ± 0.11 g) for metamorphosis. Food deprivation of larvae from day 4 resulted in an increase in the ecdysteroid level. Injection of insulin in both 1 day (before reaching critical weight) and 4 day (after reaching critical weight) old fed larvae resulted in an increase in the ecdysteroid level. However, when deprived of food only the haemolymph ecdysteroid levels of 4 day old larvae respond to an injection of insulin. The hormone level was also increased by treating 1day old larvae with a juvenile hormone analogue, but again, like insulin, only the fed larvae were affected by this treatment. Neck- and thorax-ligated 4 day old larvae had decreased ecdysteroid levels compared to both fed and food deprived larvae. However, a significant increase in ecdysteroid level was recorded in both neck- and thorax-ligated larvae injected with insulin. The injection of 20-hydroxyecdysone into 4 day old larvae resulted in an increase in the level of this substance in the haemolymph of fed and food deprived larvae, but the level was significantly higher in neck- and thorax-ligated larvae. The data, thus, indicates that ecdysteroid levels vary both in relation to the critical weight of the larvae and its nutritional status, and insulin might also play an important role in regulating the level of ecdysteroid.

As movement is expensive in terms of energy required, mobile animals might have to utilize more energy rich resources than less mobile animals. As mobile animals are possibly more effective foragers we hypothesize a positive correlation between mobility and trophic niche width. We address this link using information on the trophic level of 35 winged, wingless and wing dimorphic species of ground beetles studied on 18 lake islands and at two mainland sites in northern Poland. Trophic analyses using stable isotope values (δ¹⁵ N, δ¹³C) revealed that winged individuals of wing dimorphic species are characterized by broader isotopic niches than wingless individuals. Macropterous species are characterized by depleted δ¹³C values, which can be interpreted in terms of lipid-rich prey selection. Wing dimorphic species are characterized by higher trophic levels, as inferred from δ¹⁵ N values, than winged species. Numbers of islands colonized by particular species were not correlated with δ¹⁵ N values, δ¹³C values or isotopic niche width. Our results point to a relationship between diet and wing morphology in ground beetles.

This paper presents biological notes on two species of Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae that emerged from old spongy-woody galls of Dryocosmus kuriphilus Yasumatsu, 1951 collected in Sicily (Italy) in April 2015: Leptophyes sicula Kleukers, Odé et Fontana, 2010 (Phaneropterinae) and Cyrtaspis scutata (Charpentier, 1825) (Meconematinae). Between the end of April and the first few days of May a total of 30 neanids emerged from the galls, were reared and their life-cycle recorded. While L. sicula laid eggs in groups, C. scutata laid single eggs inside the galls; both species in a few years have adapted to exploiting this new shelter for egg laying. No interaction with the gall inducing insect was noted.

The Mediterranean flour moth, Ephestia kuehniella is a widespread pest of stored products and a classical object in experimental biology. In the present study, we determined its complete mitochondrial genome sequence. The genome is circular, consists of 15,327 bp and comprises 13 protein-coding, 2 rRNA- and 22 tRNA-coding genes in an order typical for the Ditrysia clade of the order Lepidoptera. A phylogenetic study of the Lepidoptera based on complete mitochondrial genomes places E. kuehniella correctly in the family Pyralidae and supports major lepidopteran taxa as phylogenetic clades. The W chromosome of E. kuehniella is an exceptionally rich reservoir of originally mitochondrial sequences (numts). Around 0.7% of the W DNA was found to be of mitochondrial origin, 83% of the mitogenome sequence was represented between 1-11 × in the W chromosome. Phylogenetic analysis further revealed that these numts are an evolutionary recent acquisition of the W chromosome.

The Multicoloured Asian Ladybird, Harmonia axyridis Pallas (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) is known to thrive principally in shrubby and arboreal habitats. This study focuses on the occurrence of this exotic species and its seasonal abundance in various field crops. The abundance of adults, larvae and pupae of H. axyridis was evaluated over a three-year period, from 2009 to 2011, in four important agronomical crops (wheat, corn, broad bean and potato) in Belgium. From May to September, 48 1-m² quadrats were visually inspected in each of the fields sampled on several farms every seven days. H. axyridis colonized and reproduced in all of the four crops studied, with the largest numbers recorded in corn and broad bean crops. Larvae and adults of H. axyridis were recorded mainly in corn and to a much less extent in wheat and potato crops. From 2009 to 2011, the mean weekly abundance of H. ayxridis remained constant except in corn crops, where the recorded densities of all the immature stages and adults were higher in 2011 than in 2009. The population dynamics of aphids and H. axyridis are well described by a symmetric logistic function (S-shape) of cumulative population size. H. axyridis was not always recorded where aphids were abundant, e.g. aphids were abundant on wheat where no H. axyridis were recorded. H. axyridis start reproducing after the peak in aphid population, suggesting that H. axyridis is able to complete its development by feeding on alternative prey such as larvae and pupae of the same and other species of ladybird and other aphidophagous species. H. axyridis is often considered to be bivoltine but it only completes one generation per year in field crops. The second generation generally develops late in the season in other habitats.

Ingesting nutritionally imbalanced food can cause a significant reduction in fitness in insects. Insects can avoid the negative consequences of nutritional imbalances by selectively foraging for nutritionally complementary foods. We investigated the ability of the omnivorous beetle, Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), to redress nutritional imbalances by selecting complementary foods. Beetles were fed one of three synthetic diets that varied in their protein: carbohydrate balance (p0:c42, p21:c21 or p42:c0) for 16 days and then allowed to select between two nutritionally imbalanced but complementary diets (p0:c42 vs. p42:c0) for 18 days. During the initial period, beetle survival was high on all three experimental diets, but their body composition was considerably skewed as a result of eating nutritionally imbalanced diets. Over the first 6 days of food choice (days 16-22), beetles previously fed a protein-rich, carbohydrate-deficient diet (p42:c0) preferred carbohydrate to protein, whereas those previously fed a carbohydrate-rich, protein-deficient diet (p0:c42) strongly preferred the protein-rich diet. When the food choice period continued for longer than 6 days, the selection of diets by previously carbohydrate-deprived beetles (p42:c0) was similar to that of the control beetles previously fed an optimal food (p21:c21). However, beetles that were previously fed on the protein-deficient diet (p0:c42) selected protein and carbohydrate equally throughout the remaining period of food choice and the cumulative protein-carbohydrate intake of these protein-deprived beetles was similar to that of those fed the optimal diet (p21:c21). At the end of the experiment, the body composition of all beetles was similar, indicating that the effects of nutritional imbalance on body composition were buffered by the subsequent selection of complementary foods. Our results demonstrate that T. molitor beetles are capable of redressing nutritional imbalances and indicate that the way in which the nutritional balance of beetles is restored depends on the nutrient that is initially deficient in their food.

The ladybird beetle, Cheilomenes sexmaculata (Fabricius), has been extending its distribution in and around urban areas at higher latitudes in Japan over the past 100 years. Between 2003 and 2011, we investigated the seasonal occurrence, aphid prey and population dynamics of this species in an urban park in Osaka City, central Japan. We found that C. sexmaculata completes three generations a year in Osaka. Overwintered adults emerge in March or April and produce two (or rarely one) generations by summer. Second-generation adults aestivate and subsequently produce another generation in autumn. This species feeds on five species of aphids that infest planted shrubs and alien weeds throughout the vegetative season. We analyzed the association between accumulated temperature and when overwintered adults first emerged. In addition, we determined the association between their time of emergence, peak abundance and last occurrence, and meteorological conditions. There was no association between the sum of effective temperatures and termination of adult overwintering. There was, however, an association between first occurrence and peak abundance, and climatic conditions, such as warm temperatures or low humidity. This species maintained a stable population in an urban park by becoming quiescent when climatic conditions were unfavourable or prey was scarce. We discussed these findings in relation to urban environmental factors, such as climate, food conditions and vegetation.

This paper presents the first description of the life cycle of Cinara mordvilkoi and alary dimorphism of its males. There are 3 phases in its life cycle and during the course of a year 10 generations of parthenogenetic females are produced. The durations of development of subsequent generations over three years were recorded. C. mordvilkoi was observed to change its feeding position on its host from leaves to roots throughout the year. In the third year of this study both winged and wingless males were recorded. The fundatrix, oviparous female and the apterous and winged males are described.

Spalangia cameroni Perkins (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) is sold commercially as a biocontrol agent of filth flies, including the house fly, Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae). For this reason, S. cameroni is mass-reared for inundative releases to control harmful flies. However, the mass-rearing protocols include very little information on the influence of natal host on subsequent host selection by parasitoids with more than one potential host as in the genus Spalangia. Here, we report on the use of S. cameroni against M. domestica. The S. cameroni were reared using Ceratitis capitata Wiedemann (Diptera: Tephritidae) (natal host) pupae for several generations. Freeze-killed fly pupae were used in assays to determine the fecundity, number of adult progeny and sex-ratio of this parasitoid. Realized fecundity and number of adult progeny were greater when provided with house fly pupae than Mediterranean fruit fly pupae. Thus S. cameroni parasitized more house fly pupae than C. capitata pupae, even though the parasitoid was reared on Mediterranean fruit fly for many generations. These results indicate that S. cameroni reared on C. capitata can be successfully used in inundative releases against both fruit flies (agriculture) and house flies (livestock farming).

Gender-specific reproductive roles are important factors determining sexual dimorphism. Here, we investigate the effects of sex-based differences and reproductive status on the defence of Tribolium castaneum (Herbst, 1797) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) against infection by Steinernema feltiae (Filipjev, 1934) (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae). Female and male beetles, either virgin or post-copulation, were exposed individually to nematodes. Individuals were then sampled every 12 h, dissected, and checked for the presence of nematodes; we also measured their phenoloxidase (PO) activity. Reproductive status affected resistance to nematodes and PO activity as infected virgin individuals had a higher PO activity and lower mortality than reproducing individuals, with no differences between sexes. Mortality also increased with time, while PO activity did not change. Parasite load was related to reproductive status and sex, with reproducing females with the highest parasite loads in all treatments, and virgin males with more nematodes than sexually active males. Our results indicate that the costs of reproduction impair the immunological system of T. castaneum similarly in both sexes. It is possible, however, that other components of the immunological system that we did not measure, such as lysozyme activity, are impaired by infection with S. feltiae in a sex-specific way.

Despite the many studies on age based mate choice in insects, the question of how age influences mate choice in predaceous ladybird beetles is still unexplored. The present study evaluates age based mate choice in two sympatric aphidophagous ladybirds, Coccinella septempunctata L. and Coccinella transversalis Fab., in terms of mating behaviour (latent period, number of bouts, bout interval and duration of wriggling movements and mating), fecundity, egg viability and the development and survival of their progeny. Results revealed that middle aged (30-40 days) mates were preferred by young (10-15 days post-eclosion), middle aged (30-40 days) and old (45-55 days) individuals of both sexes. Mating behaviour and egg viability differed significantly with male age whereas fecundity, offspring development and survival differed significantly with female age. The shortest latent periods and bout intervals, highest numbers of bouts, longest durations of wriggling movements and mating, and maximum egg viability were recorded for middle aged males whereas fecundity, percentage pupation and adult emergence of offspring were highest and durations of immature development were shortest for middle aged females. Thus, the present study indicates that middle aged individuals of C. septempunctata and C. transversalis are most preferred as mates as they have the highest reproductive output and produce the fittest offspring.

Tapinoma melanocephalum is a worldwide distributed, highly invasive ant species. It lives in close association with human societies and its distribution is human-mediated in large measure. The geographical origin of this ant species is unknown, but its introduction in areas previously devoided of its presence can represent a threat to the native biota, act as an agricultural pest or as a pathogen vector. To investigate the genetic structure and phylogeography of this species we identified 12 new polymorphic microsatellite markers, and in addition, we tested and selected 12 ant-universal microsatellites polymorphic in T. melanocephalum. We genotyped 30 individuals from several islands of Micronesia and Papua-New Guinea. All 24 loci exhibited strong homozygosity excess (45-100%, mean = 86%), while the number of alleles per locus reached usual values (2-18, mean = 6.5), resulting in levels of expected heterozygosity much higher than observed. Based on several robust tests, we were able to exclude artefacts such as null alleles and allelic dropout as a possible cause of the observed pattern. Homozygosity excess might be a consequence of founder effect, bottleneck and/or inbreeding. As our sample population was composed of individuals from several distinct localities, the Wahlund effect might have contributed to the increased homozygosity as well. Despite the provisionally observed deviation from the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, the newly developed microsatellites will provide an effective tool for future genetic investigations of population structure as well as for the phylogeographic study of T. melanocephalum.

Currently the introduction and spread of invasive species is an issue of great concern. To effectively manage this problem it is essential to know what constitute invasion hotspots. In this respect, the role of urban green areas in the conservation of biodiversity is a controversial matter. These areas may either favour colonization by alien species or shelter species of high conservation value. We evaluated the influence of location (island, coastal or inland) on the exotic and native ant fauna recorded in 27 urban green areas in Spain. A forward-stepwise discriminant analysis revealed differences between these locations in terms of the composition of the fauna, with exotic species identified as being the most important discriminating variable. There is a gradient: inland-coastal-island, along which there is significant increase in importance in terms of species richness and abundance of particular exotic species and decrease in the dominance of both common and rare native species. Areas located on the Island were more susceptible to invasion by alien ants. Coastal areas were also more susceptible to invasion than inland areas. These results possibly reflect the greater probability of an invasive species reaching these locations and the milder weather conditions at these sites, which would favour their establishment.

Prey preferences and feeding-related behaviour of a Central European species of Scydmaeninae, Scydmaenus rufus, were studied under laboratory conditions. Results of prey choice experiments involving 22 identified species of mites belonging to 13 families of Oribatida and two families of Mesostigmata (Uropodina) demonstrated that this beetle feeds mostly on oribatid Scheloribatidae (60.38% of prey) and Oppiidae (29.75%) and only occasionally on uropodine Urodinychidae (4.42%) and oribatid Mycobatidae (3.39%); species belonging to Trematuridae (Uropodina), Ceratozetidae and Tectocepheidae (Oribatida) were consumed occasionally. The number of mites consumed per beetle per day was 1.42, and when Oppia nitens was the prey, the entire feeding process took 2.93-5.58 h. Observations revealed that mechanisms for overcoming the prey s defences depended on the body form of the mite. When attacking oribatids, with long and spiny legs, the beetles cut off one or two legs before killing the mite by inserting one mandible into its gnathosomal opening. Flattened and short-legged uropodines were killed in the same way but without cutting off their legs. More legs of the prey were removed during feeding, when the mite was already dead; in Oribatida additional damage included removal of genital plates, whereas the genital structures remained intact in Uropodina. Scydmaenus rufus was able to feed on potentially highly toxic Scheloribatidae, which raises questions about the efficiency of chemical defence in Oribatida.

The effects of different abiotic agents that may modulate the activity of an insect's immune system are reviewed. These agents include insecticides, chitin synthesis inhibitors, juvenile hormone analogues, inert particles, antibiotics, heavy metals, radiation and miscellaneous substances. The significance of studying immunomodulation in insects treated with abiotic agents in relation to both insect control and insect-borne parasitic diseases and the link between immunomodulation in insects post-treatment with both abiotic and biotic agents are discussed.

Karyotypes of the polyploid parthenogenetic species Saga pedo from four localities in France and the Republic of Macedonia were constructed and compared. All these karyotypes consist of 70 chromosomes, which is more than twice that in other species of the genus. The chromosomes differ from each other, making the matching of homologues difficult. Karyotypes of French specimens are similar, except for differences in the heterochromatin. Compared to that of the Macedonian specimens those from French specimens differ by the shortening of a single chromosome. The difficulty experienced in identifying tetrads and even pairs of chromosomes indicates that either many chromosome rearrangements have occurred since the polyploidisation event(s) or that the addition of quite different genomes is the cause. On the other hand, that the karyotypes are similar indicates a common origin of both the Macedonian and French populations. Thus, most chromosome changes preceded the separation from their common ancestor. Both the DNA content and chromosome analyses suggest that the S. pedo karyotype is pentaploid and not tetraploid as previously proposed. This odd ploidy number rules out the hypothesis that it could only have originated by endoreduplication. It is more likely that it originated by the association of five copies of the 14,X haploid karyotype, which exists in the gametes of the closely related species, S. campbelli and S. rammei (male / female 2n = 27, X / 28, XX). Fertilization of a parthenogenetic 56, XXXX female by a 14, X spermatozoa could have resulted in the last increase in ploidy.

Urbanisation results in a marked modification of habitats and influences several ecological processes, some of which give rise to beneficial ecological services. Natural pest control, the effect of predators on prey is one of such services. We quantified changes in the incidence of predation with increasing levels of urbanisation using artificial caterpillars made of green plasticine. Potential predators can be identified by the "attack marks" they leave on these artificial caterpillars. We conducted this study from May to October 2010 around the city of Sorø (Zealand, Denmark), in forests along an urbanisation gradient (rural-suburban-urban). Artificial caterpillars were placed on the ground in order to obtain an estimate of the incidence of predation at ground level. Half (50%) of the 1398 caterpillars were "attacked" and 28.8% of the bites were those of chewing insects. We attributed the majority of these to carabids, the most common group of ground-active arthropods. Chewing insects exerted the greatest predation pressure in the original forest (52.1%), with lower values recorded in the suburban (10.1%) and urban (16.4%) forest fragments. Ants were responsible for only 4.7% of the attacks in forest, 11.3% in suburban and 16.4% in urban forest fragments. Mammals exerted the highest predation pressure in suburban habitats (22.2% vs. 4.9% in forest, and 8.1% in urban forest fragments).

The Australian species of the genus Coelioxys Latreille are revised. Six species are recognized: Coelioxys albolineata Cockerell, 1905; Coelioxys froggatti Cockerell, 1911; Coelioxys reginae Cockerell, 1905; Coelioxys weinlandi Schulz, 1904 and two new species: Coelioxys julia sp. n. and Coelioxys tasmaniana sp. n. Three names are synonymized: Coelioxys biroi Friese, 1909 syn. n. and Coelioxys albolineata darwiniensis Cockerell, 1929 syn. n. under Coelioxys albolineata, and Coelioxys victoriae Rayment, 1935 syn. n. under Coelioxys froggatti. Species descriptions and redescriptions, illustrations, distribution maps, floral records and a key to both sexes of all species are provided.