Nuptial flights of Crematogaster teranishii Santschi occur in autumn. Queens and possibly larvae pass the first winter without workers in Okayama, Japan. This study examines and tests the hypothesis that C. teranishii queens regulate not only their own diapause, but also that of their larvae. Some queens collected immediately after their nuptial flight in early October were exposed to a low temperature of 10°C for 3 months before transfer to 25°C; these queens started oviposition approximately 8 days after the transfer. Larvae reared by these previously chilled queens pupated synchronously until day 50. Other field-collected queens reared at 25°C without prior chilling reproduced soon after collection. They started oviposition, but the development of their larvae was arrested and pupation occurred late or not at all within the120 day experimental period. The delay in pupation in colonies in which the queens were not previously exposed to low temperature strongly indicates that many larvae are in diapause. Because eggs and larvae were not exposed to low temperatures, they were unable to determine the developmental pathway providing the best response to environmental factors. Results indicate that queens regulate whether their larvae undergo diapause.

This review considers factors affecting the flight capacity of carabid beetles and the implications of flight for carabids. Studies from the Dutch polders in particular show that young populations of carabids consist predominantly of macropterous species and macropterous individuals of wing-dimorphic species. Also populations of wing-dimorphic carabid species at the periphery of their geographical range contain high proportions of macropterous individuals. However, studies from Baltic archipelagos show that older populations of even highly isolated island habitats contain considerable proportions of brachypterous species and individuals. This suggests that macroptery is primarily an adaptation for dispersal and that there exists a mechanism for subsequently reducing the ratio of macropterous to brachypterous species under stable conditions, due to the competitive advantage of brachyptery. Populations in isolated habitats, such as islands and mountains, have high proportions of brachypterous species. Many macropterous species do not possess functional flight muscles. Species of unstable habitats, such as tree canopies and wet habitats, are mostly macropterous. Brachypterous species tend to disappear from disturbed habitats. There is uncertainty regarding the extent to which carabid dispersal is directed and how much passive. Both Den Boer and Lindroth recognized that mostly macropterous individuals of macropterous and wing-dimorphic species disperse and found new populations, after which brachyptery tends to rapidly appear and proliferate in the newly founded population. It is most likely that the allele for brachyptery would arrive via the dispersal of gravid females which had mated with brachypterous males prior to emigration. Whilst many studies consider wing morphology traits of carabid beetles to be species-specific and permanent, a number of studies have shown that the oogenesis flight syndrome, whereby females undertake migration and subsequently lose their flight muscles by histolysis before eventually regenerating them after reproducing, has been reported for a growing number of carabid species. Wing morphology of carabid beetles clearly offers strong potential for the study of population dynamics. This field of study flourished during the 1940's to the late 1980's. Whilst a considerable amount of valuable research has been performed and published, the topic clearly holds considerable potential for future study.

The Asian ladybird Harmonia axyridis is an invasive insect in Europe and the Americas and is a great threat to the environment in invaded areas. The situation is exacerbated by the fact that non native species are resistant to many groups of parasites that attack native insects. However, very little is known about the complex microbial community associated with this insect. This study based on sequencing 16S rRNA genes in extracted metagenomic DNA is the first research on the bacterial flora associated with H. axyridis. Lady beetles were collected during hibernation from wind turbines in Poland. A mean ± SD of 114 ± 35 species of bacteria were identified. The dominant phyla of bacteria recorded associated with H. axyridis were Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes. Representatives of these phyla are common in the environment, e.g. in the soil, and are often identified as the dominant bacteria associated with arthropods. We also identified animal pathogenic bacteria, such as Burkholderia, Rhodococcus, Chlamydiae and Anaplasmataceae spp. (Neorickettsia helminthoeca and Ehrlichia ovina). We also identified Wolbachia pipientis in a single beetle. This bacterium is a causative agent of reproductive alterations in arthropods. These results support the enemy release hypothesis in the case of this ladybird invasion. Pathogenic bacteria were recorded in only a few samples. Moreover, male-killing bacteria such as Spiroplasma spp., Wolbachia spp. and Rickettsia spp. were only recorded in single insects so they cannot be responsible for the observed alterations in the sex-ratio of the ladybird population studied.

Intracellular bacteria of the genus Wolbachia (α-Proteobacteria) are the most widespread endosymbionts of insects. Host infection is usually associated with alterations in reproduction, such as cytoplasmic incompatibility, the induction of parthenogenesis and offspring sex ratio bias: all phenomena that may influence host speciation. In the present study, by using well-established molecular tools, we investigated the presence of Wolbachia in leaf beetles of the genus Crioceris and their host plants, which are various species of Asparagus. Multilocus sequence typing of bacterial genes showed that despite their occurrence in the same habitat and feeding on the same plant, two species of Crioceris, C. quinquepunctata and C. quatuordecimpunctata, are infected by two different strains of Wolbachia. C. asparagi, C. paracenthesis and C. duodecimpunctata, which are sympatric with the infected species, do not harbour the bacterium. Interestingly, DNA of Wolbachia was detected in host plant tissues that are exploited by the beetles, providing evidence for the horizontal transmission of the bacterium between beetles and their host plants. Moreover, Wolbachia was detected in species of Crioceris that are not closely related.

Intraguild predation of a generalist predator, Orius niger Wolff (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) on Trichogramma evanescens Westwood (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae), was determined in choice and no-choice experiments using a factitious host, Ephestia kuehniella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), under laboratory conditions. Choice and no-choice experiments were conducted in order to assess the level of intraguild predation of O. niger on E. kuehniella eggs parasitized by T. evanescens. In no-choice experiments, approximately 50 sterile (1) non-parasitized, (2) 3-day-old parasitized, or (3) 6-day-old parasitized E. kuehniella eggs were offered to 24-h-old females of O. niger in glass tubes. In choice experiments approximately 25 eggs of two of the three groups mentioned above were offered to 24-h-old O. niger females. In both choice and no-choice experiments, O. niger consumed more non-parasitized eggs of E. kuehniella. However, intraguild predation occurred, especially of 3-day-old parasitoids, but very few 6-day-old parasitized eggs were consumed. The preference index was nearly 1 indicating O. niger preferred mainly non-parasitized E. kuehniella eggs. A lower level of intraguild predation is expected under field conditions but needs to be investigated using further experiments.

Tettigettalna (Hemiptera: Cicadidae) is a genus of small sized cicadas occurring in south-western Europe, which consists of a complex of sibling species that are morphologically difficult to distinguish from each other but their calling songs can be used as the main character for their identification. These sibling species may sometimes occur in sympatry, therefore, this genus is a suitable model for addressing questions on isolation mechanisms and recognition processes. For this study, we selected T. argentata (the species with the broadest distribution) and the three other species of Tettigettalna (T. mariae, T. estrellae and T. josei) that are known to occur in sympatry with T. argentata at some locations in their distribution ranges. Thus, the present study investigates calling song and variation in external morphology in selected sympatric and allopatric populations of four species of Tettigettalna in order to determine whether there are patterns in population divergence that provide evidence of species recognition and reproductive isolation. The interspecific analysis of the calling songs showed that most time domain variables are species-specific although an overlap was found between the maximum and minimum values in T. argentata and T. mariae populations for four time domain variables. When only sympatric populations of T. argentata and T. mariae are compared, time domain variables show less variation leading to a reduced overlap between this pair of sibling species. The morphometric variables showed low interspecific variability and did not allow a complete separation of the four species, both in allopatric and sympatric populations. Sympatric populations of both T. argentata and T. mariae showed lower frequencies and bigger general body sizes than the allopatric ones. The pattern of variation found does not correspond to the pattern expected in species undergoing character displacement.

In this paper the strictly attaphilous Central- and South American genus Phoxonotus Marseul, 1862 is revised. Based on the structure of their antennal cavities, the species of Phoxonotus are newly split into two subgenera: Phoxonotus Marseul, 1862 and Alienosternus subgen. n. (type species Saprinus venustus Erichson, 1834). The subgenus Phoxonotus contains three species: Phoxonotus (P.) tuberculatus Marseul, 1862 (French Guyana, Suriname, Brazil: Pará, Mato Grosso), P. (P.) lectus Lewis, 1902 (eastern Peru) and the newly described P. parvotuberculatus sp. n. (Guatemala, Costa Rica). The subgenus Alienosternus subgen. n. contains two species: Phoxonotus (Alienosternus) venustus (Erichson, 1834) (Brazil: Bahia) and P. (Alienosternus) fryi Lewis, 1879 (Brazil: Rio de Janeiro and Bahia). P. tuberculatus Marseul, 1862 is synonymized with P. suturalis Lewis, 1907, syn. n. Lectotype of Phoxonotus fryi Lewis, 1879 is designated. Genitalia of the males for the species for which they are available are illustrated, most type specimens are imaged and scanning electron micrographs of P. tuberculatus provided. Mouthparts and sensory structures of the antennal club of P. tuberculatus are depicted.

To gain further insight into the molecular features of the ubiquitous Hsp70 family of conserved heat shock proteins, total nine full-length cDNA sequences of inducible hsp70s (Px-hsp69-1, -2a, -2b, -3, -4, Px-hsp72-1a, -1b, -2 and -3) and one constitutive hsc70 (Px-hsc70(C)) were isolated and characterized in the diamondback moth (DBM), Plutella xylostella, collected from Fuzhou, China. The nine Px-hsp70s cDNAs encoded the protein of between 629-669 amino acids with molecular weight ranging from 69.00-72.58 kDa and were derived from four hsp70 genes in the genome of DBM. The Px-hsc70(C) cDNA contained 1,953 bp of open reading frame (ORF), which produced a putative protein comprising 650 amino acids with a calculated molecular weight of 71.18 kDa. Whether in adults or larvae of chlorpyrifos-resistant (R_R) and chlorpyrifos-susceptible (S_S) strains of DBM, the basal level (at 25°C) of Px-hsc70(C) mRNA expression was high, but no significant up-regulation expression was found under heat stress. However, heat stress facilitated up-regulation expressions of Px-hsp70s, and S_S DBM displayed higher up-regulation expression of Px-hsp70s than R_R DBM. We suggest that higher up-regulation expression of Px-hsp70s in S_S DBM is probably involved in their higher thermal tolerance.

We investigated the predatory potential and food preference of different life stages of Coccinella septempunctata L. for a nutritious aphid (mustard aphid, Lipaphis erysimi) and toxic aphid (cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae). We provided all the life stages of C. septempunctata with either L. erysimi or B. brassicae and found that the second, third and fourth instar larvae and adult females of this predator consumed daily greater numbers of L. erysimi. However, the first instar larvae and adult males consumed similar numbers of both of these aphids. In choice condition, each larva, adult males and females were each provided separately with a mixed aphid diet in three proportions (i.e. low: high, equal: equal and high: low densities of L. erysimi: B. brassicae). We hypothesized that life stages of C. septempunctata will prefer L. erysimi regardless of its proportions. Laboratory experiments supported this hypothesis only at the adult level in terms of high values of β and C preference indices. However, it rejects this hypothesis at the larval level, as larvae preferred B. brassicae when provided with certain combinations and showed no preference in a few combinations. We infer that mixtures of nutritious and toxic aphids may enable this ladybird to overcome any probable nutritional deficiency and/or reduce the toxicity of a toxic diet, especially for the larvae. Results of the treatment in which a high proportion of B. brassicae were consumed along with fewer L. erysimi indicates that a mixed diet could be better for the development of immature stages of C. septempunctata.

In this study, we examined for the first time the distribution of the 28S ribosomal genes in beetles of the subfamily Cassidinae. More than 55% of the species in this subfamily have a similar karyotype, 2n = 16 + Xy_p. For this work, we selected species belonging to the tribes Cassidini and Mesomphaliini, which have, respectively, the most conserved and diversified karyotype characteristics within the Cassidinae. An analysis of 11 species revealed that rDNA sites on one pair of autosomes is the most frequent pattern, occurring in 10 species. This condition occurs in the seven genera examined and in species of both of the tribes, Cassidini and Mesomphaliini. Nevertheless, the differences in the locations of 28S rDNA were more pronounced in the tribe Cassidini and among species with similar karyotype characteristics. On the other hand, in Mesomphaliini, the increase in the diploid number was not accompanied by an increase in the number of ribosomal sites. Moreover, the comparison of the number and localization of major rDNA sites with the distribution of constitutive heterochromatin indicates that there is no direct correlation between the dispersion of constitutive heterochromatin and 28S rDNA genes in Cassidinae.

Parasitic plants growing on tree branches may be a novel niche and phytoresource for arthropods. The spatial continuity between hosts and their parasites in canopies might provide a homogeneous environment for arthropod communities, but differences in mistletoe leaves and host needles could be exploited by different species of arthropods. Therefore, it is important to determine insect-community assemblages in order to discover the role of parasitic plants as a different habitat for arthropods. Thus, we aim to evaluate the level of similarity between the arthropod community on mistletoe (Viscum album) and that on its two principal pine hosts, Black pine (Pinus nigra) and Scots pine (P. sylvestris), on a Mediterranean mountain. Our results reveal that, irrespective of the species of pine host, V. album has a stable, independent and simple arthropod trophic web, composed mainly of two specialist hemipteran herbivores, Cacopsylla visci (Psyllidae) and Pinalitus viscicola (Miridae), and a hemipteran predator, Anthocoris visci (Anthocoridae). Despite this, the composition of the arthropod communities differed significantly on both host species, with a greater richness and diversity on Scots than Black pine and these differences are not reflected in the community on mistletoe. Overall, we conclude that, although Viscum album is considered to be a pest of pine, its presence increases the heterogeneity of the forest canopy by providing a novel habitat for a new and specific community of arthropods. In addition, this is a new record for and most probably an extension of the southernmost limit of the known geographical distribution of the arthropod community inhabiting V. album.

Knowledge of the patterns in the spatial distribution of species provides valuable information about the factors (resources and environment) that regulate the use of space by animals. Typically, the distribution of litter-dwelling scorpions in Atlantic forests is correlated with the structure of their microhabitats, although to better understand their natural history more studies on the patterns in their use of space are required. Therefore, we investigated the effect of rainfall on the patterns in the spatial distributions and population densities of two sympatric species of scorpion, Tityus (Archaeotityus) pusillus Pocock 1893 and Ananteris mauryi Lourenço 1982 in a fragment of Atlantic Forest in Brazil. The study was carried out during the dry (September) and rainy (June) months. We collected 501 individuals (268 T. (A.) pusillus and 233 A. mauryi) by actively searching at night using UV lanterns. We found that the spatial distribution and population density of T. (A.) pusillus, but not A. mauryi, were significantly affected by rainfall, with T. (A.) pusillus individuals showing a clumped pattern during the rainy month and random distribution in the dry month. We also found a different response in the population densities of the two species, with T. (A.) pusillus but not A. mauryi being affected by rainfall. Our results indicate that, although co-habiting in leaf litter, these species respond differently to rainfall, which affects their spatial distribution and abundance in this habitat.

Food webs are of crucial importance for understanding any ecosystem. The accuracy of food web and ecosystem models rests on the reliability of the information on the feeding habits of the species involved. Water boatmen (Corixoidea) is the most diverse superfamily of water bugs (Heteroptera: Nepomorpha), frequently the most abundant group of insects in a variety of freshwater habitats worldwide. In spite of their high biomass, the importance of water boatmen in aquatic ecosystems is frequently underestimated. The diet and feeding habits of Corixoidea are unclear as published data are frequently contradictory. We summarise information on the feeding habits of this taxon, which exemplify the difficulties in evaluating published data on feeding habits in an invertebrate taxon. It is concluded that Corixoidea are, unlike other true bugs, capable of digesting solid food, but their feeding habits are still insufficiently known. The dominant feeding strategy in this taxon is zoophagy, but several species consume other foods, particularly algae and detritus. Only members of the subfamily Cymatiainae seem to be exclusively predators. In other subfamilies, the diet of different species and different sexes or populations of a single species may vary depending on the food available or is still unknown. We conclude, that a multi-method approach is needed to elucidate the feeding habits of aquatic insects and invertebrates in general.

Insects produce pigment and structural colours mainly for camouflage, signaling, physical protection or temperature regulation, and colour patterns can provide information about individual quality. Although the evolutionary function and nature of the variability in colouration are well known for many invertebrate taxa, there is little information on this topic for ants. We studied individual variation in the melanin-based colour traits of workers of the red wood ant, Formica rufa (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), from 20 colonies in Southern Finland and revealed the type of colouration in this species. First, using the threshold approach we distinguished between continuous and discrete variations. Furthermore, the analyses affirmed nine discrete morphs in terms of the colouration on the head and eight on the pronotum, while only continuous variation were found on the other body parts. Measuring the size of a particular colour pattern, the intensity of colour expression (degree of melanization) and statistical analyses allowed an assessment of the intra-individual variation in both discrete and continuous patterns. The results revealed substantial modularity in the above mentioned colouration traits. In workers of F. rufa there were individuals with a dark head and light coloured thorax and vice a versa. Size of the dark pigment colour patterns exhibited less modularity than the degree of melanization. Finally, the interrelation between colouration traits and individual body size revealed their size-dependent origin. Small individuals had relatively larger areas of colour on the head and thorax than big individuals. These results are likely to facilitate further taxonomical and ecological studies on red wood ants, as they show it is possible to assess colouration traits in ants. However, more studies are needed on the function of polymorphism and modular colouration in this group of ants.

Reflex bleeding is one of the many anti-predation behavioural tactics used by insects. This behaviour is recorded widely in several insect taxa and provides scientists with an interesting opportunity for easily obtaining samples of haemolymph for physiological experiments. However, there is no good evidence that haemolymph and reflex blood have the same characteristics. In this study, we compared three basic characteristics of reflex blood and haemolymph collected from the body cavity, of three species of ladybirds: Harmonia axyridis, Coccinella septempunctata and Ceratomegilla undecimnotata. In the reflex blood we recorded the same concentration of haemocytes and total protein, and level of antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli as in samples of haemolymph collected from within the body cavity. Therefore, reflex blood is a promising source of haemolymph for use in many physiological and immunological studies. It is the best way of collecting haemolymph if one wants to avoid challenging the immune system and concurrently also enables one to repeatedly collect haemolymph from one individual without injuring it, which would initiate repair mechanisms. The interspecific comparison indicates significant differences among the species studied in three characteristics measured. Interestingly, the native species Ceratomegilla undecimnotata has nearly as effective immune system as the invasive Harmonia axyridis based on the level of antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli.

Two new species of Polydictya Guérin-Méneville, 1844 from Vietnam, P. grootaerti sp. n. from Central Vietnam and P. drumonti sp. n. from North Vietnam, are described and compared with the closest species, P. chantrainei Nagai & Porion, 2004 and P. kuntzi Nagai & Porion, 2004. The male genitalia are described and illustrated for the two new species as well as for P. vietnamica Constant & Pham, 2008 for the first time. Habitus details and photographs, a distribution map and photographs of specimens in nature when available, are provided. The occurrence of P. vietnamica from Thailand and Northeast India, noted here for the first time based on photographs taken in nature, requires confirmation based on the examination of specimens. An identification key to the species of Polydictya from the Indochinese region is provided.

Alien phytophagous insects are often introduced along with their host plants, creating opportunities for troublesome invasions. Yet, not all of them are able to successfully colonize novel host plants. In this study, we investigated host selection by the alien leaf miner Phyllonorycter leucographella (Zeller, 1850) on both its original host and novel host plants in the insect's alien range. We predicted that this insect's percentage infestation of the original host would be positively related to its specific leaf area (SLA), because high-SLA leaves are nutritious and have thin cuticles, traits related to high offspring developmental success. We further hypothesized that this host selection process would apply in the selection of novel host plants. Our results show that this leaf miner selects leaves of its original host plant, Pyracantha coccinea, according to their SLA values. The SLA value was also positively related to the probability of P. leucographella infesting and successfully developing on novel host plants. The selection of high-SLA plants by the moth leads to a high developmental success on novel host plants in the first (summer) generation, but it is likely to be maladaptive in the second (overwintering) generation, because in temperate Europe, high SLA values are associated with deciduous plants that shed their leaves in autumn. It is likely that the apparent maladaptive selection of novel host plants by P. leucographella reduces the invasiveness of this pest by preventing its establishment on native plants.

Many factors contribute to the 'invasive potential' of species or populations. It has been suggested that the rate of genetic evolution of a species and the amount of genetic diversity upon which selection can act may play a role in invasiveness. In this study, we examine whether invasive species have a higher relative pace of molecular evolution as compared with closely related non-invasive species, as well as examine the genetic diversity between invasive and closely related species. To do this, we used mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I sequences of 35 species with a European native range that are invasive in North America. Unique to molecular rate studies, we permuted across sequences when comparing each invasive species with its sister clade species, incorporating a range of recorded genetic variation within species using 405,765 total combinations of invasive, sister, and outgroup sequences. We observed no significant trend in relative molecular rates between invasive and non-invasive sister clade species, nor in intraspecific genetic diversity, suggesting that differences in invasive status between closely related lineages are not strongly determined by the relative overall pace of genetic evolution or molecular genetic diversity. We support previous observations of more often higher genetic diversity in native than invaded ranges using available data for this genetic region.

Recently a large number of studies have reported an increase in the variability in the climate, which affects behavioural and physiological adaptations in a broad range of organisms. Specifically, insects may be especially sensitive to climatic fluctuations, as their physiology and life history traits, like those of other ectotherms, are predominantly affected by environmental factors. Here we aimed to investigate climate-induced changes in several morphometric measures of the Heath Fritillary in North-Eastern Hungary, which is a highly diverse transitional area. During this study we tested the following hypotheses: (i) climate affects genitalia and body size to various degrees (ii) increasing variability in climate induces higher levels of fluctuating asymmetry and variance in all morphological characters. To our knowledge, this study is the first to analyse simultaneously wing size and structure of genitalia of a butterfly in response to variability in climate. Our findings suggest that wing and genital traits may exhibit similar degrees of stability in response to a more variable climate, although the response in terms of forewing size differs from that of other body measurements and the structure of the genitalia. These findings suggest that global climate change may affect lepidopteran body metrics over longer periods of time. Our findings parallel the results of investigations showing that insect morphology might be modified by environmental changes, which is especially the case for those body parts that are phenotypically very variable. However, we found no evidence that increasing variability in climate would induce higher levels of fluctuating asymmetry and greater variability in morphological characters.

Though extra instars are often associated with poor conditions and thought to be a compensation for a low growth rate, the reasons why they are necessary, and for variable instar number existing under standard rearing conditions, are not yet clear. In standard rearing conditions, approximately half of Pseudocoremia suavis larvae had five instars (Type I larvae), and half six instars (Type II larvae). Type II larvae took longer to pupate and reached higher pupal weights than Type I larvae. The extra instar was not related to sexual size dimorphism; Type II larvae were not more likely to be females. Females of both Types pupated later than males and had higher pupal weights; this weight gain was achieved wholly via an extended final instar. Relative growth rates (RGR), instar durations and larval weights on weigh days were otherwise the same for both sexes. For most of the larval period, Type II larvae had lower RGR and lower weights than Type I larvae. They also had shorter 3^rd, 4^th and 5^th instars than Type I larvae, and the estimated weights at each moult were significantly lower. The Types are discussed in terms of being, in species with weight thresholds for pupation, not optional "strategies" involving different critical weight ratios for larval moults, but as an inevitable consequence of physiological timing constraints upon reaching the critical weights for larval moults causing large variation in size after the moult. Small larvae may then need an extra instar to reach pupation. When parasitised in the second instar by Meteorus pulchricornis, P. suavis larvae produced parasitoids in either their fourth (4^th instar emerging (IE)) or fifth instar (5^th IE). The estimated moulting weights at each instar of 4^th IE and 5^th IE hosts were very similar to those of Type I and Type II unparasitised larvae respectively, which, together with similarity of instar duration patterns, is strongly suggestive of Types being present within parasitised larvae. The proportion of 5^th IE hosts in the much slower-growing parasitised treatment was greater than the proportion of Type II larvae in the unparasitised treatment, as might be expected if Type II is associated with lower RGR. The lack of further Types appearing is consistent with extra instars being a compensation for small weight after the moult rather than low RGR per se.

Aphis fabae and Myzus persicae (Hemiptera: Aphididae) are insect pests that damage sugar beet and bean crops. Both are responsible for losses in yield and transmission of viral diseases, and may be present on the same host at the same time. Three parasitoid species, Aphidius colemani, Lysiphlebus testaceipes and Lysiphlebus fabarum (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Aphidiinae) have the potential to be used as biological control agents against at least one of these species of aphids. As a first step prior to the implementation of a biological control program, our aim was to understand the host selection behaviour of the parasitoids, particularly when both aphids are present. We recorded the host acceptance (number of insertions of the ovipositor / number of antennal contacts), suitability (number of mummies / the number of insertions of the ovipositor) and emergence (number of adults emerging from mummies) of these three aphid parasitoids when parasitizing the two aphids. We also analyzed the effect of the host plant on the host preference of the parasitoid. Females of each parasitoid species (n = 15) were exposed to 20 aphids of A. fabae or M. persicae, or a mixture of these two species of aphids, for 15 min, on a leaf disc of each of the two host plants, sugar beet and bean. Higher host acceptance and suitability were recorded for A. colemani attacking both species of aphid: A. fabae (43 and 46%) and M. persicae (43 and 46%) on beet and bean plants respectively, compared to L. testaceipes and L. fabarum. L. testaceipes and L. fabarum showed a clear preference for A. fabae. L. fabarum accepted M. persicae on both plants only when it was mixed with A. fabae, probably due to a confusion effect. We found that the host plant played a significant role in host acceptance, host suitability. We conclude that A. colemani is the better of the three parasitoids studied for the biological control in bean, and particularly, sugar beet crops.

Termites are important decomposer due to their ability to digest cellulose and their diverse feeding habits. Trehalase is an enzyme that hydrolyzes trehalose to glucose in insects and has an important biological role. Gut morphology of wood-feeding termites (Globitermes sulphureus, Termitinae; Microcerotermes crassus, Termitinae and Bulbitermes prabhae, Nasutitermitinae) and fungus-growing termites (Macrotermes annandalei, Macrotermitinae) that belong to the family Termitidae was determined in this study. Results indicate that wood-feeding termites have a similar gut morphology, which consists of a foregut, midgut and elongated hindgut, which is divided into four segments. More specifically the enlarged segment in the hindgut, called a paunch, is prominent in wood-feeding termites, whereas fungus-growing termites have a simpler tubular gut with a very small paunch. Trehalase activity was high in the midgut of wood-feeding termites (G. sulphureus, Mi. crassus and B. prabhae), but in the fungus-growing termite (Ma. annandalei) the highest level of activity was recorded in the hindgut. Cellulase activity (endo-β-1,4-glucanase) was detected in all gut segments with very high levels in the hindguts of B. prabhae and Ma. annandalei. Differences in the distribution of trehalase and gut morphology correspond to the phylogenetic analyses of Termitidae, which indicate that Macrotermitinae is the sister group of Termitinae and Nasutitermitinae. In addition, validamycin suppressed trehalase activity in termites in vitro and in vivo, resulting in a high mortality in wood-feeding and fungus-growing termites, indicating that trehalase inhibitors could be useful tools for termite control.

Rove beetles (Staphylinidae) are used to explore the forces that shaped the terrestrial fauna on Læsø, a young ca. 3000 year old Danish oceanic island located in the Kattegat strait between mainland Denmark and Sweden. We compile a detailed list of species of rove beetles for Læsø (328 species) and the surrounding Danish and Swedish regions (altogether 1075 species), which includes a standardized inventory of their body sizes, and the habitat and microhabitat preference of each species. The composition of the fauna on Læsø and adjacent mainland regions points to North-Eastern Jutland as the main source of the rove beetles on Læsø. Although large beetles are more active and likely to disperse than small beetles, there is no bias towards large species on the island indicating that the sea separating Læsø from the mainland has not been a barrier for rove beetle dispersal. The statistical analysis of the habitat and microhabitat preferences of the species of the entire system studied has shown that Læsø, compared to the mainland areas, is distinctly more dominated by ecological generalists, especially by species adapted to ephemeral, temporary humid microhabitats. Presumably, the mosaic of mostly dry open habitats available on Læsø filters for species, that are able to populate these suboptimal habitats via patches of humid but ephemeral microhabitats. A comprehensive eco-faunistic dataset for the Staphylinidae compiled for this study is the first modern account of the rove beetle fauna on the Danish island of Læsø.

To study the component and gene expressions of apoptosome in the mitochondrial-associated apoptotic pathway, cytochrome c and Apaf-1 were identified in the diamondback moth (DBM), Plutella xylostella, collected from Fuzhou, China. The full-length cDNA of cytochrome c comprised 873 bp, including a 327 bp ORF encoding a putative protein of 108 amino acids. Two full-length cDNAs of Apaf-1, Apaf-1a and Apaf-1b, were identified. Apaf-1a shared the same region of 5'-UTR (5'-untranslated region) (172 bp) and ORF (4,647 bp) of cDNA, but was 73 bp longer than Apaf-1b in the region of 3'-UTR of the cDNA. The ORF of Apaf-1a and Apaf-1b encoded a putative protein of 1,548 amino acids and shared 100% identity. No significant up-regulation of cytochrome c mRNA expression was found in both the chlorpyrifos-resistant (R_R) and chlorpyrifos-susceptible (S_S) DBM. Compared with the control (at 25°C for 3 h), mRNA transcript levels of Apaf-1a and Apaf-1b increased with the increase of temperature and were significantly higher at 37, 42, 47 and 50°C than at 25 and 33.5°C in R_R DBM. However, the extent of up-regulation expression of Apaf-1a and Apaf-1b in S_S DBM was slight under heat stress except at 42°C. In general, significantly higher increase in the mRNA transcript level of Apaf-1a and Apaf-1b was found in R_R DBM than in S_S DBM. It has been suggested that significantly higher expression of caspase-7 and lower biological fitness occurs in R_R DBM under heat stress, a suggestion confirmed in our previous publications, and a result which might be associated with their higher up-regulation expression of Apaf-1a and Apaf-1b.

Understanding arthropod responses to forest edges is essential to understanding both the characteristics of agro-ecosystems and the potential ecosystem services provided by forests adjacent to farmland in heterogeneous agricultural landscapes. Seasonal difference in the responses of carabid beetles to forest edges was determined using transects that extended from the edge of the forest 22.5 m into the interior of a forest and 22.5 m into the meadow in three seasons, early summer, late summer and mid-autumn. The responses of carabids to the forest edge in terms of species richness and abundance differed significantly in the three seasons. The species richness and abundance peaked in the meadow 4.5 m from the edge and were low in the forest in summer, whereas they peaked at the edge and remained high in the forest in autumn. Species-level analyses revealed that several species did not move between habitats, indicating that the forest edge acted as a barrier for these species. Many species, however, peaked in the meadow near the edge and the distribution of one species along the meadow-forest transect changed with the seasons. Our results indicate that secondary forests are not an effective sources of predators of pests, but do function as overwintering sites for some species. Because many species that prefer open land hibernate in field boundaries and fallow fields, the quality and spatial configuration of these habitats is important. Furthermore, in terms of pest management the seasonal dynamics of not only carabid beetles but other beneficial arthropods such as spiders and parasitoids should be considered.

The sex determination cascades in insects are diversified at the top of the cascade, where different primary molecular signals are employed, while at the bottom of the cascades, particularly the doublesex genes, are highly conserved. Here, we identified the doublesex ortholog (Btau-dsx) of Bactrocera tau, a pumpkin fruit fly, and found that Btau-dsx is composed of six exons and five introns with an additional short "m" exon located in the second intron. Btau-dsx is different from its orthologs in most dipteran insects: Its pre-mRNA is sex-specifically spliced to yield three (two male and one female) instead of two transcript variants. The two deduced proteins produced by the male-specific transcripts are a functional (Btau-DSX^M1) and a truncated (Btau-DSX^M2) protein, while the female-specific transcript produces the functional Btau-DSX^F protein. These three proteins contain all conserved domains except Btau-DSX^M2 which has no OD2 domain. The female-specific transcript is detected in both fertilized and unfertilized eggs and in both somatic and germ cells of the adult females, while the male-specific transcript is detected only in fertilized eggs and in the abdominal tissues and testes of adult males. The presence of the Btau-dsx^M1 transcript in fertilized eggs at the early syncytium stage suggests that in XY embryos, the Y-linked M factor gene may function quite soon after fertilization to alter the splicing pattern of Btau-dsx pre-mRNA from the female-specific to the male-specific mode. Injection of Btau-dsx^F dsRNA into recently emerging females can reduce the expression of vitellogenin (Btau-Vg) and causes some defects in the ovaries, indicating that Btau-dsx^F works upstream of Btau-Vg.

Large, ball rolling dung beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae) are competitively dominant and can strongly influence community succession in dung pads. Ball production by Scarabaeus sacer Linnaeus was recorded in the Kizilirmak Delta on the Black Sea coast of Turkey by using artificial dung pads from 125 g to 2,000 g. Utilisation of pads across the 16-fold range of pad sizes demonstrated behavioural variation that may reduce intraspecies competition. Ball production was highly concentrated, with 66 balls (61%) produced from 8 pads of the 3 largest pad sizes, which may be related to chemical attraction between males and females. Ball size increased with increasing pad size (P < 0.05) but the number of balls produced per 100 g of dung decreased with increasing pad size (P < 0.01). Pad size for maximum ball production and ball size were 1,371 g and 1,260 g, respectively. The highest and lowest percentage of dung used for ball production was 43% of 125 g pads and 13% of 2,000 g pads, respectively. Ball production and time of day were significantly related (P < 0.01); S. sacer was almost exclusively nocturnal, with 59% of all balls produced between 21.00 and 22.00. This optimum period for ball production early in the night may be a compromise between reduced risk of predation and the increased energy costs of ball production as the temperature falls.

Duponchelia fovealis Zeller is a polyphagous insect that has been recently reported attacking strawberry plants (Fragaria x ananassa Duchesne). Despite its economic importance there are few studies on this pest because it is difficult to rear it in the laboratory. With a constant supply of insects, studies on alternative methods of pest control can be conducted. This study aimed at developing an artificial diet for rearing D. fovealis with biological characteristics similar to those reared on their natural diet. This study was carried out in a climate-controlled room (25°C ± 2°C, RH 70% ± 10%, and 14L : 10D). The natural diet consisted of 'San Andreas' strawberry leaves (D1), while the artificial diet (D2) was developed in which beans, casein, soy protein, yeast and wheat germ are used as sources of protein. Five instars were identified. D. fovealis completed its life cycle in 38 and 40 days when fed D1 and D2, respectively. Survival was highest for the larvae fed the artificial diet. Females fed D1 lay a mean of 300.2 ± 62.3 eggs, while those fed D2, 220.3 ± 41.8 eggs. The artificial diet is suitable for the continuous rearing of D. fovealis in the laboratory.

Dinocampus coccinellae is a parasitoid wasp usually parasitizing ladybird beetles of the tribe Coccinellini. A field survey conducted between March and November 2016 revealed three hosts of this parasitoid in the Srinagar district of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir: two members of the Coccinellini (Oenopia conglobata and Coccinella undecimpunctata) and one of the Chilocorini (Priscibrumus uropygialis). Proportion of the latter (atypical) host that were parasitized was 0.09 and intermediate between that recorded for C. undecimpunctata (0.06) and O. conglobata (0.14). A series of laboratory experiments revealed that while a member of Coccinellini (O. conglobata) was more often attacked by D. coccinellae than a member of Chilocorini (P. uropygialis), the proportions of each species from which parasitoids emerged did not differ significantly. There were no significant differences between D. coccinellae females bred from O. conglobata and P. uropygialis, with respect to selection of the two host species and their suitability for the development of the parasitoid. However, members of the Chilocorini other than P. uropygialis (Chilocorus infernalis and Simmondsius pakistanensis) were rarely attacked by D. coccinellae and parasitoid larvae did not emerge from any of those attacked. The results of our experiments indicate that in Kashmir Himalayas D. coccinellae is adapted to parasitize hosts belonging to both Coccinellini and Chilocorini.

Water-filled tree holes are abundant microhabitats in forests worldwide and are inhabited by specialized communities of invertebrates. Despite their importance, the temporal dynamics of communities within and between years are largely unknown. Here, I present a case study on the phenology of insect larvae in two holes in a beech tree (lower and upper canopy) located in southern Germany over a period of three years. I asked whether water temperature and the characteristics of insect larvae at the community and population levels are similar in periodicity every year and whether they differ in the lower and upper canopy. The water temperature in tree holes differed greatly from air temperature, and this effect was more pronounced in the lower than in the upper canopy, which resulted in a lower probability of drying out occurring in the lower canopy. This was associated with a higher species richness in the lower canopy and greater abundance of drought tolerant species in the upper canopy. There was a significant periodicity in larval abundance, biomass, species richness and body size distribution of abundant species in both tree holes, but it was not seasonal. This result indicates that unpredictable drying out of tree holes are more important drivers of tree hole community dynamics than changes in water temperature. The community of larvae in the tree hole in the upper canopy lagged behind that in the lower canopy, which indicates that most species mainly colonize the more stable microhabitats in the lower canopy. Hopefully this case study will encourage future larger-scale phenological studies to test (1) whether the patterns observed in this study can be generalized over larger spatial scales and (2) the relative importance of abiotic and biotic drivers of the dynamics of communities in tree holes.