A new fossil genus and species of Sinoalidae, Stictocercopis wuhuaensis gen. et sp. n., from the Middle to Upper Jurassic Haifanggou Formation at Daohugou, Inner Mongolia, northeastern China is described, illustrated and its systematic position discussed, on the basis of four complete well-preserved specimens. The new genus distinctly differs from other sinoalids in having relatively complex wing venation and tegmen spots. The intra-specific variation in venation is also discussed. The new discovery increases the palaeodiversity of sinoalids in the early assemblage of the Yanliao biota from the Daohugou beds.

This study analyses the geographic distributions of 95 endemic and sub-endemic species of Chaetocnema (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) found in Sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar, in order to compare and correlate their pattern of the geographic range (chorotype) and the distribution of terrestrial ecosystems in Africa and Madagascar. The data compiled for the species of Chaetocnema are based on records for 1639 collecting localities. Most of the species of Chaetocnema have restricted geographical ranges (67.3%), whereas relatively few species (11.6%) are very widely distributed. The latitudinal and longitudinal gradients in the numbers of species reveal that the highest levels of species richness occur in the Equatorial Belt and Southern Africa. Species of Chaetocnema in Sub-Saharan Africa have a clear preference for grassland and the wide-open environment associated with savannah. However, forest ecosystems are also important for numerous species, particularly in Madagascar. Several endemic species are associated with the Mediterranean vegetation in the southern part of West Africa. Species of Chaetocnema are generally associated with a limited number of vegetation types within the Afrotropical region. A cluster analysis based on calculating the squared Euclidean distance and using the WARD clustering method revealed a significant correlation between the chorotype and the vegetation types associated with each species. Finally, certain species of Chaetocnema that are characteristic of specific types of vegetation and/or indicators of biodiversity hotspots in Sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar are highlighted.

Hoverflies (Diptera: Syrphidae) provide crucial ecological services and are increasingly used as bioindicators in environmental assessment studies. Information is available for a wide range of life history traits at the species level for most Syrphidae but little is recorded about the environmental requirements of forest hoverflies at the stand scale. The aim of this study was to explore whether the structural heterogeneity of a stand influences species richness or abundance of hoverflies in a montane beech-fir forest. We used the catches of Malaise traps set in 2004 and 2007 in three stands in the French Pyrenees, selected to represent a wide range of structural heterogeneity in terms of their vertical structure, tree diversity, deadwood and tree-microhabitats. We assessed hoverfly assemblages by recording species richness, abundance and functional diversity. Malaise traps caught 2,374 hoverflies belonging to 104 species. The catches of hoverflies fluctuated both in species richness and abundance between 2004 and 2007. Strictly forest species were only caught in the most heterogeneous stand. Species strictly associated with fir were not recorded in the least heterogeneous stand although fir was present. Although most of the functional groups were recorded in the three stands, species richness, abundance and functional diversity decreased dramatically from the most heterogeneous to the least heterogeneous stand. However, the species assemblages in the less heterogeneous stands were not perfect subsets of that in the most heterogeneous stand, as some additional species not found in the most heterogeneous stand were also present.

Eristalis pertinax varies seasonally, with the spring morph more hairy than the summer morph. We measured the size and the venation of the wings of the seasonal morphs. Wings of the spring morph were significantly larger than those of the summer morph and those of females were larger than those of males. There were also significant differences between the morphs in wing venation and their allometric relationship. The differences between sexes were larger than differences between seasonal morphs. The allometry can account for the sexual dimorphism but not seasonal dimorphism. The differences between seasonal morphs in wing shape were relatively large with very few intermediate individuals. The differences were comparable to those between two related species of Syrphidae. Genetic analyses based on markers in nuclear and mitochondrial genomes unequivocally revealed that spring and summer morphs of E. pertinax form a single population and should not be regarded as separate taxa. Thus seasonal variability in this species is a rare example of polyphenism in Diptera.

The potato tuberworm, Phthorimaea operculella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), is a major pest of potato, Solanum tuberosum L. (Solanales: Solanaceae), both in the field and storehouses. The rate of development and survival of P. operculella, reared on potato tubers cv. Spunta at eight constant temperatures (17.5, 20, 22.5, 25, 27.5, 30, 32.5 and 35°C), were studied in the laboratory. The duration of development of the immature stages was recorded. Adult longevity was also recorded under the same conditions. Developmental time decreased significantly with increase in temperature within the range 17.5-32.5°C. No development occurred at 35°C. Survival (%) from egg to adult was higher at temperatures within the range 17.5-27.5°C than at either 30 or 32.5°C. Linear and a non-linear (Logan I) models were fitted to our data in order to describe the developmental rate of the immature stages of P. operculella as a function of temperature and estimate the thermal constant (K) and critical temperatures (i.e., lower developmental threshold, optimum temperature for development, upper developmental threshold). Lower developmental threshold and optimum temperature for development ranged between 12.5-16.2 and 31.7-33.8°C, respectively. The estimated upper developmental threshold for total immature development was 35.0°C. Thermal constant for total development was 294.0 degree-days. Adult longevity was significantly shorter at high (30 and 32.5°C) than at low temperatures (17.5-27.5°C). Our results not only provide a broader insight into the thermal biology of P. operculella, but also can be used as an important tool in planning an effective pest control program both in the field and storehouses.

The butterfly subgenus Agrodiaetus of the genus Polyommatus (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) is distributed in the western and central Palaearctic and represents a taxonomically challenging group due to its rapid diversification coupled, in many cases, with very limited availability of morphological diagnostic characters. In this study we provide a detailed overview of this subgenus in the Romanian fauna, a country where scattered, poorly documented records suggest the presence of three species: Polyommatus (Agrodiaetus) damon, P. (A.) admetus and P. (A.) ripartii. By analyzing material from museum collections and published records, and combining them with new faunistic findings and DNA data, we show that only P. admetus is currently undoubtedly present in the Romanian fauna (northern Dobrogea), where it reaches its north-eastern range limit in the Balkans. Historical records and DNA data suggest that the occurrence of P. admetus in northern Dobrogea is not likely to reflect a recent range expansion caused by climate or other environmental changes. Several historical records of this species that suggest its much wider distribution in Romania represent confusion with P. damon and Phengaris alcon. Polyommatus damon, reported mainly from western Romania, lacks records after 1938, while P. ripartii is only known from a single male labelled as originating from the Danube Delta, and requiring confirmation. There is a great need for directed studies to clarify the status of P. damon and P. ripartii, which are scarce and declining north of the Balkans and may represent taxa of conservation concern.

The European stag beetle, Lucanus cervus, is recognised as a flagship species for biodiversity conservation. Although the species is widely distributed across Europe declines have led to it being granted protected or endangered status in a number of countries and regarded as "near threatened" by the IUCN. The integration of genetic approaches into conservation efforts is urgently needed but has been impeded to date by the lack of appropriate genetic markers. To provide such a resource the development of the first microsatellite loci for stag beetle is described. Loci were identified using two methods (i) enriched library cloning (ELC) and (ii) Restriction enzyme Associated DNA sequencing (RAD-Seq). Inefficient microsatellite detection using the ELC method suggests that RAD-Seq, or other Next Generation Sequencing based methods, may ultimately be more cost effective for obtaining informative suites of markers for this and other coleopteran species. 18 loci were characterised by genotyping 42 UK specimens collected as prey leftover/roadkill. All loci produced unambiguous genotypes and were polymorphic. Though preliminary, estimates of genetic variability suggest UK populations may be genetically depauperate. The microsatellite loci represent a suite of genetic markers that can be applied to non-invasive population monitoring and numerous other areas of Lucanus conservation and evolutionary research.

Sequence data for the nuclear ITS2 region and part of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene were used to reveal intraspecific phylogeography and population genetic structure of the oak gall wasp Trigonaspis synaspis from Anatolia. One hundred and sixty six individuals representing 21 populations yielded 50 unique cyt b haplotypes and 15 ITS2 alleles. Genetic diversity estimates indicated the existence of high molecular variation, with average gene diversities of 0.85541 and 0.3119 for cyt b and ITS2 respectively. Likewise, nucleotide diversity was 0.01346 for cyt b and 0.0015 for ITS2. Pairwise divergence ranged from 0.2 to 3.1% between cyt b haplotypes, and from 0.2 to 2.8% between ITS2 alleles. Phylogenetic analyses of the cyt b haplotypes conducted using three different approaches produced mostly similar topologies, and major clades generally grouped haplotypes with similar geographic origins. Contrary to the mtDNA results, ITS2 analyses produced largely similar but polytomous topologies lacking apparent geographic structure. Application of the widely used insect mitochondrial molecular clock linked the origin of major phylogeographic structure to the effects of the Quaternary climatic oscillations. The outgroup haplotypes of T. megaptera are inferred to have diverged from T. synaspis around the late Pliocene. Intraspecific node ages in T. synaspis link major clade structure to the Pleistocene glacial cycles. Geographical formations in Anatolia were also probably an important factor in shaping the phylogeographic structure of T. synaspis.

The average soil temperature was significantly lower in plots covered with hay. Hay mulching, however, did not increase significantly the total number of soil micro-arthropods collected using a soil pin trap and a soil sampler. Significant increases in the number of individuals was recorded only for certain groups. 64% of all the arthropods collected using soil pin traps were collected in hay-covered plots and 36% in control plots. This increase was statistically significant for the orders Entomobryomorpha and Poduromorpha of the subclass Collembola and surface-dwelling (epigeic) Coleoptera. For the samples collected using the soil sampler, 57% of the specimens were collected from hay-covered plots and 43% from control plots. As for the pin traps this was reflected in differences in the numbers of the orders Entomobrhyomorpha and Poduromorpha of the subclass Collembola and Pauropoda, collected in the treated and control plots. We conclude that mulching affected the different arthropod groups differently.

Diapause is a common dormancy strategy exhibited by many species of invertebrates and insects to temporarily avoid seasonally recurring unfavourable conditions for their development, most usually in winter. Less frequently, a prolonged diapause lasting two or more years is described in species living in unpredictable environments where it is adaptive, but with significant costs. In this paper we examine the occurrence of prolonged diapause in the lycaenid butterfly Tomares ballus. Pupae of this species undergo an obligate diapause from mid-May to late January the following year. However, during our rearing experiments (from 2009 to 2016) the emergence of adults occurred sequentially and a fraction of the pupae remained in diapause for up to seven years. The annual percentage emergence after the first year of diapause was 45.6%, and only barely exceeded 50.0% in 2015. Remarkably, 12 pupae (11.4% of the initial brood) remained in diapause in their eighth year. The negative exponential equation fitted to the emergence data suggests that further emergences may occur within the next five years. Therefore, the potential for successful prolonged diapause of T. ballus pupae may be more than 10 years. The adaptive value of this strategy is discussed in relation to the effects of adverse and unpredictable weather during the flight period of the butterfly, intra-guild competition, parasitoids and changes in habitat quality. We suggest that this strategy may also be exhibited by other species of Mediterranean lycaenids.

Temporal patterns and frequency spectra of the songs and stridulatory files of 14 species of the genus of the phaneropterid bush-crickets Isophya from Eastern Europe, Altai and the Caucasus are given. The sound signals of the species studied can be separated into three main types: (1) those consisting of two syllables (Isophya gracilis, I. kalishevskii, I. schneideri, I. caspica, Isophya sp. 1); (2) one syllable and series of clicks (I. modesta rossica, I. stepposa, I. taurica, I. brunneri, I. doneciana, I. altaica); (3) single repeating syllables of uniform shape and duration (I. pienensis, Isophya sp. 2 and possibly I. stysi). The acoustic signals and behaviour of eastern European, Altai and Caucasian species are compared to those of several other European species of Isophya.

Serpin is a broadly distributed superfamily of proteins that have a crucial role in regulating various immune reactions. Herein we identified a serpin-10 gene from Antheraea pernyi that encodes a 1557 amino acid residue protein with a predicted molecular weight of 58.76 kDa. Recombinant Apserpin-10 protein was expressed in a prokaryotic expression system (Escherichia coli) and the purified protein was used to prepare rabbit anti-Apserpin-10 polyclonal antibodies. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blot analysis indicate that Apserpin-10 was transcribed in all the tissues examined, including haemolymph, malpighian tubules, fat body, silk gland, integument and mid gut; the greatest expression level of Apserpin-10 was recorded in the fat body and haemocytes. The comparison of different developmental stages showed that Apserpin-10 transcript level was highest in 5th instar larvae, while the lowest expression was recorded at the egg stage. We also investigated the expression patterns of Apserpin-10 in fat body and haemocyte samples, following administration of heat-inactivated gram-positive bacteria (Micrococcus luteus), gram negative bacteria (Escherichia coli), a fungus (Beauveria bassiana) and virus (nuclear polyhedrosis virus, NPV). A substantial up-regulation of Apserpin-10 expression was recorded following pathogen challenge in both the tissues tested. Further the knock down of Apserpin-10 led to down regulation of antimicrobial peptide genes. Altogether, our results indicate that Apserpin-10 is involved in the innate immunity of A. pernyi.

The population structures of different species of Calliphoridae flies are highly diverse at different locations. We investigated populations of the Eastern European L. sericata using chaetotaxy and eight microsatellite loci. Our results strongly indicate that a panmictic population of L. sericata exists in the area studied, possibly with a high rate of intra-population gene flow. Analysis of chaetotaxy also supports the panmictic population hypothesis.

The Trophic Cascade Theory has been used to explain the organization of herbivorous insect communities in tropical ecosystems. In addition, the insect community associated with a species of plant can also be determined by the geographical distribution and taxonomic isolation of the plant. In this study, the following predictions about the number of herbivores associated with particular host plants were tested: (i) plant species belonging to large taxonomic groups with broad geographical distributions have a higher number, (ii) the abundance of ants negatively affects herbivore insect diversity, (iii) local plant diversity positively affects chewing herbivore diversity and (iv) local abundance of a specific host plant positively affects the diversity of sucking herbivores. The samples of insect herbivores were collected from 32 plants (16 plants of Erythroxylum suberosum and 16 of Qualea parviflora) by beating. A total of 71 ants (13 species) and 158 herbivorous insects (90 species) were collected from these two species of plants. The richness and abundance of the insect herbivores collected from E. suberosum differed from those collected from Q. parviflora. The abundance of ants negatively affected the diversity of sucking insects associated with E. suberosum. In addition, the interaction between the variables total plant richness per plot and ant abundance affected the diversity of chewing insects associated with E. suberosum. The density of Q. parviflora per plot affected the diversity of associated sucking insects. In addition, the interaction of the variables abundance of ants and abundance of Q. parviflora influenced the diversity of chewing insects. Our results indicate that there is no predominance of bottom-up or top-down forces in the organization of herbivorous insect communities in this area of tropical savanna, but the roles of these forces on insect communities are guild-dependent.

Nuptial flights of Crematogaster teranishii Santschi occur in autumn. Queens and possibly larvae pass the first winter without workers in Okayama, Japan. This study examines and tests the hypothesis that C. teranishii queens regulate not only their own diapause, but also that of their larvae. Some queens collected immediately after their nuptial flight in early October were exposed to a low temperature of 10°C for 3 months before transfer to 25°C; these queens started oviposition approximately 8 days after the transfer. Larvae reared by these previously chilled queens pupated synchronously until day 50. Other field-collected queens reared at 25°C without prior chilling reproduced soon after collection. They started oviposition, but the development of their larvae was arrested and pupation occurred late or not at all within the120 day experimental period. The delay in pupation in colonies in which the queens were not previously exposed to low temperature strongly indicates that many larvae are in diapause. Because eggs and larvae were not exposed to low temperatures, they were unable to determine the developmental pathway providing the best response to environmental factors. Results indicate that queens regulate whether their larvae undergo diapause.

This review considers factors affecting the flight capacity of carabid beetles and the implications of flight for carabids. Studies from the Dutch polders in particular show that young populations of carabids consist predominantly of macropterous species and macropterous individuals of wing-dimorphic species. Also populations of wing-dimorphic carabid species at the periphery of their geographical range contain high proportions of macropterous individuals. However, studies from Baltic archipelagos show that older populations of even highly isolated island habitats contain considerable proportions of brachypterous species and individuals. This suggests that macroptery is primarily an adaptation for dispersal and that there exists a mechanism for subsequently reducing the ratio of macropterous to brachypterous species under stable conditions, due to the competitive advantage of brachyptery. Populations in isolated habitats, such as islands and mountains, have high proportions of brachypterous species. Many macropterous species do not possess functional flight muscles. Species of unstable habitats, such as tree canopies and wet habitats, are mostly macropterous. Brachypterous species tend to disappear from disturbed habitats. There is uncertainty regarding the extent to which carabid dispersal is directed and how much passive. Both Den Boer and Lindroth recognized that mostly macropterous individuals of macropterous and wing-dimorphic species disperse and found new populations, after which brachyptery tends to rapidly appear and proliferate in the newly founded population. It is most likely that the allele for brachyptery would arrive via the dispersal of gravid females which had mated with brachypterous males prior to emigration. Whilst many studies consider wing morphology traits of carabid beetles to be species-specific and permanent, a number of studies have shown that the oogenesis flight syndrome, whereby females undertake migration and subsequently lose their flight muscles by histolysis before eventually regenerating them after reproducing, has been reported for a growing number of carabid species. Wing morphology of carabid beetles clearly offers strong potential for the study of population dynamics. This field of study flourished during the 1940's to the late 1980's. Whilst a considerable amount of valuable research has been performed and published, the topic clearly holds considerable potential for future study.

The Asian ladybird Harmonia axyridis is an invasive insect in Europe and the Americas and is a great threat to the environment in invaded areas. The situation is exacerbated by the fact that non native species are resistant to many groups of parasites that attack native insects. However, very little is known about the complex microbial community associated with this insect. This study based on sequencing 16S rRNA genes in extracted metagenomic DNA is the first research on the bacterial flora associated with H. axyridis. Lady beetles were collected during hibernation from wind turbines in Poland. A mean ± SD of 114 ± 35 species of bacteria were identified. The dominant phyla of bacteria recorded associated with H. axyridis were Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes. Representatives of these phyla are common in the environment, e.g. in the soil, and are often identified as the dominant bacteria associated with arthropods. We also identified animal pathogenic bacteria, such as Burkholderia, Rhodococcus, Chlamydiae and Anaplasmataceae spp. (Neorickettsia helminthoeca and Ehrlichia ovina). We also identified Wolbachia pipientis in a single beetle. This bacterium is a causative agent of reproductive alterations in arthropods. These results support the enemy release hypothesis in the case of this ladybird invasion. Pathogenic bacteria were recorded in only a few samples. Moreover, male-killing bacteria such as Spiroplasma spp., Wolbachia spp. and Rickettsia spp. were only recorded in single insects so they cannot be responsible for the observed alterations in the sex-ratio of the ladybird population studied.

Intracellular bacteria of the genus Wolbachia (α-Proteobacteria) are the most widespread endosymbionts of insects. Host infection is usually associated with alterations in reproduction, such as cytoplasmic incompatibility, the induction of parthenogenesis and offspring sex ratio bias: all phenomena that may influence host speciation. In the present study, by using well-established molecular tools, we investigated the presence of Wolbachia in leaf beetles of the genus Crioceris and their host plants, which are various species of Asparagus. Multilocus sequence typing of bacterial genes showed that despite their occurrence in the same habitat and feeding on the same plant, two species of Crioceris, C. quinquepunctata and C. quatuordecimpunctata, are infected by two different strains of Wolbachia. C. asparagi, C. paracenthesis and C. duodecimpunctata, which are sympatric with the infected species, do not harbour the bacterium. Interestingly, DNA of Wolbachia was detected in host plant tissues that are exploited by the beetles, providing evidence for the horizontal transmission of the bacterium between beetles and their host plants. Moreover, Wolbachia was detected in species of Crioceris that are not closely related.

Intraguild predation of a generalist predator, Orius niger Wolff (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) on Trichogramma evanescens Westwood (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae), was determined in choice and no-choice experiments using a factitious host, Ephestia kuehniella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), under laboratory conditions. Choice and no-choice experiments were conducted in order to assess the level of intraguild predation of O. niger on E. kuehniella eggs parasitized by T. evanescens. In no-choice experiments, approximately 50 sterile (1) non-parasitized, (2) 3-day-old parasitized, or (3) 6-day-old parasitized E. kuehniella eggs were offered to 24-h-old females of O. niger in glass tubes. In choice experiments approximately 25 eggs of two of the three groups mentioned above were offered to 24-h-old O. niger females. In both choice and no-choice experiments, O. niger consumed more non-parasitized eggs of E. kuehniella. However, intraguild predation occurred, especially of 3-day-old parasitoids, but very few 6-day-old parasitized eggs were consumed. The preference index was nearly 1 indicating O. niger preferred mainly non-parasitized E. kuehniella eggs. A lower level of intraguild predation is expected under field conditions but needs to be investigated using further experiments.

Tettigettalna (Hemiptera: Cicadidae) is a genus of small sized cicadas occurring in south-western Europe, which consists of a complex of sibling species that are morphologically difficult to distinguish from each other but their calling songs can be used as the main character for their identification. These sibling species may sometimes occur in sympatry, therefore, this genus is a suitable model for addressing questions on isolation mechanisms and recognition processes. For this study, we selected T. argentata (the species with the broadest distribution) and the three other species of Tettigettalna (T. mariae, T. estrellae and T. josei) that are known to occur in sympatry with T. argentata at some locations in their distribution ranges. Thus, the present study investigates calling song and variation in external morphology in selected sympatric and allopatric populations of four species of Tettigettalna in order to determine whether there are patterns in population divergence that provide evidence of species recognition and reproductive isolation. The interspecific analysis of the calling songs showed that most time domain variables are species-specific although an overlap was found between the maximum and minimum values in T. argentata and T. mariae populations for four time domain variables. When only sympatric populations of T. argentata and T. mariae are compared, time domain variables show less variation leading to a reduced overlap between this pair of sibling species. The morphometric variables showed low interspecific variability and did not allow a complete separation of the four species, both in allopatric and sympatric populations. Sympatric populations of both T. argentata and T. mariae showed lower frequencies and bigger general body sizes than the allopatric ones. The pattern of variation found does not correspond to the pattern expected in species undergoing character displacement.

In this paper the strictly attaphilous Central- and South American genus Phoxonotus Marseul, 1862 is revised. Based on the structure of their antennal cavities, the species of Phoxonotus are newly split into two subgenera: Phoxonotus Marseul, 1862 and Alienosternus subgen. n. (type species Saprinus venustus Erichson, 1834). The subgenus Phoxonotus contains three species: Phoxonotus (P.) tuberculatus Marseul, 1862 (French Guyana, Suriname, Brazil: Pará, Mato Grosso), P. (P.) lectus Lewis, 1902 (eastern Peru) and the newly described P. parvotuberculatus sp. n. (Guatemala, Costa Rica). The subgenus Alienosternus subgen. n. contains two species: Phoxonotus (Alienosternus) venustus (Erichson, 1834) (Brazil: Bahia) and P. (Alienosternus) fryi Lewis, 1879 (Brazil: Rio de Janeiro and Bahia). P. tuberculatus Marseul, 1862 is synonymized with P. suturalis Lewis, 1907, syn. n. Lectotype of Phoxonotus fryi Lewis, 1879 is designated. Genitalia of the males for the species for which they are available are illustrated, most type specimens are imaged and scanning electron micrographs of P. tuberculatus provided. Mouthparts and sensory structures of the antennal club of P. tuberculatus are depicted.

To gain further insight into the molecular features of the ubiquitous Hsp70 family of conserved heat shock proteins, total nine full-length cDNA sequences of inducible hsp70s (Px-hsp69-1, -2a, -2b, -3, -4, Px-hsp72-1a, -1b, -2 and -3) and one constitutive hsc70 (Px-hsc70(C)) were isolated and characterized in the diamondback moth (DBM), Plutella xylostella, collected from Fuzhou, China. The nine Px-hsp70s cDNAs encoded the protein of between 629-669 amino acids with molecular weight ranging from 69.00-72.58 kDa and were derived from four hsp70 genes in the genome of DBM. The Px-hsc70(C) cDNA contained 1,953 bp of open reading frame (ORF), which produced a putative protein comprising 650 amino acids with a calculated molecular weight of 71.18 kDa. Whether in adults or larvae of chlorpyrifos-resistant (R_R) and chlorpyrifos-susceptible (S_S) strains of DBM, the basal level (at 25°C) of Px-hsc70(C) mRNA expression was high, but no significant up-regulation expression was found under heat stress. However, heat stress facilitated up-regulation expressions of Px-hsp70s, and S_S DBM displayed higher up-regulation expression of Px-hsp70s than R_R DBM. We suggest that higher up-regulation expression of Px-hsp70s in S_S DBM is probably involved in their higher thermal tolerance.

We investigated the predatory potential and food preference of different life stages of Coccinella septempunctata L. for a nutritious aphid (mustard aphid, Lipaphis erysimi) and toxic aphid (cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae). We provided all the life stages of C. septempunctata with either L. erysimi or B. brassicae and found that the second, third and fourth instar larvae and adult females of this predator consumed daily greater numbers of L. erysimi. However, the first instar larvae and adult males consumed similar numbers of both of these aphids. In choice condition, each larva, adult males and females were each provided separately with a mixed aphid diet in three proportions (i.e. low: high, equal: equal and high: low densities of L. erysimi: B. brassicae). We hypothesized that life stages of C. septempunctata will prefer L. erysimi regardless of its proportions. Laboratory experiments supported this hypothesis only at the adult level in terms of high values of β and C preference indices. However, it rejects this hypothesis at the larval level, as larvae preferred B. brassicae when provided with certain combinations and showed no preference in a few combinations. We infer that mixtures of nutritious and toxic aphids may enable this ladybird to overcome any probable nutritional deficiency and/or reduce the toxicity of a toxic diet, especially for the larvae. Results of the treatment in which a high proportion of B. brassicae were consumed along with fewer L. erysimi indicates that a mixed diet could be better for the development of immature stages of C. septempunctata.

In this study, we examined for the first time the distribution of the 28S ribosomal genes in beetles of the subfamily Cassidinae. More than 55% of the species in this subfamily have a similar karyotype, 2n = 16 + Xy_p. For this work, we selected species belonging to the tribes Cassidini and Mesomphaliini, which have, respectively, the most conserved and diversified karyotype characteristics within the Cassidinae. An analysis of 11 species revealed that rDNA sites on one pair of autosomes is the most frequent pattern, occurring in 10 species. This condition occurs in the seven genera examined and in species of both of the tribes, Cassidini and Mesomphaliini. Nevertheless, the differences in the locations of 28S rDNA were more pronounced in the tribe Cassidini and among species with similar karyotype characteristics. On the other hand, in Mesomphaliini, the increase in the diploid number was not accompanied by an increase in the number of ribosomal sites. Moreover, the comparison of the number and localization of major rDNA sites with the distribution of constitutive heterochromatin indicates that there is no direct correlation between the dispersion of constitutive heterochromatin and 28S rDNA genes in Cassidinae.

Parasitic plants growing on tree branches may be a novel niche and phytoresource for arthropods. The spatial continuity between hosts and their parasites in canopies might provide a homogeneous environment for arthropod communities, but differences in mistletoe leaves and host needles could be exploited by different species of arthropods. Therefore, it is important to determine insect-community assemblages in order to discover the role of parasitic plants as a different habitat for arthropods. Thus, we aim to evaluate the level of similarity between the arthropod community on mistletoe (Viscum album) and that on its two principal pine hosts, Black pine (Pinus nigra) and Scots pine (P. sylvestris), on a Mediterranean mountain. Our results reveal that, irrespective of the species of pine host, V. album has a stable, independent and simple arthropod trophic web, composed mainly of two specialist hemipteran herbivores, Cacopsylla visci (Psyllidae) and Pinalitus viscicola (Miridae), and a hemipteran predator, Anthocoris visci (Anthocoridae). Despite this, the composition of the arthropod communities differed significantly on both host species, with a greater richness and diversity on Scots than Black pine and these differences are not reflected in the community on mistletoe. Overall, we conclude that, although Viscum album is considered to be a pest of pine, its presence increases the heterogeneity of the forest canopy by providing a novel habitat for a new and specific community of arthropods. In addition, this is a new record for and most probably an extension of the southernmost limit of the known geographical distribution of the arthropod community inhabiting V. album.

Knowledge of the patterns in the spatial distribution of species provides valuable information about the factors (resources and environment) that regulate the use of space by animals. Typically, the distribution of litter-dwelling scorpions in Atlantic forests is correlated with the structure of their microhabitats, although to better understand their natural history more studies on the patterns in their use of space are required. Therefore, we investigated the effect of rainfall on the patterns in the spatial distributions and population densities of two sympatric species of scorpion, Tityus (Archaeotityus) pusillus Pocock 1893 and Ananteris mauryi Lourenço 1982 in a fragment of Atlantic Forest in Brazil. The study was carried out during the dry (September) and rainy (June) months. We collected 501 individuals (268 T. (A.) pusillus and 233 A. mauryi) by actively searching at night using UV lanterns. We found that the spatial distribution and population density of T. (A.) pusillus, but not A. mauryi, were significantly affected by rainfall, with T. (A.) pusillus individuals showing a clumped pattern during the rainy month and random distribution in the dry month. We also found a different response in the population densities of the two species, with T. (A.) pusillus but not A. mauryi being affected by rainfall. Our results indicate that, although co-habiting in leaf litter, these species respond differently to rainfall, which affects their spatial distribution and abundance in this habitat.

Food webs are of crucial importance for understanding any ecosystem. The accuracy of food web and ecosystem models rests on the reliability of the information on the feeding habits of the species involved. Water boatmen (Corixoidea) is the most diverse superfamily of water bugs (Heteroptera: Nepomorpha), frequently the most abundant group of insects in a variety of freshwater habitats worldwide. In spite of their high biomass, the importance of water boatmen in aquatic ecosystems is frequently underestimated. The diet and feeding habits of Corixoidea are unclear as published data are frequently contradictory. We summarise information on the feeding habits of this taxon, which exemplify the difficulties in evaluating published data on feeding habits in an invertebrate taxon. It is concluded that Corixoidea are, unlike other true bugs, capable of digesting solid food, but their feeding habits are still insufficiently known. The dominant feeding strategy in this taxon is zoophagy, but several species consume other foods, particularly algae and detritus. Only members of the subfamily Cymatiainae seem to be exclusively predators. In other subfamilies, the diet of different species and different sexes or populations of a single species may vary depending on the food available or is still unknown. We conclude, that a multi-method approach is needed to elucidate the feeding habits of aquatic insects and invertebrates in general.

Insects produce pigment and structural colours mainly for camouflage, signaling, physical protection or temperature regulation, and colour patterns can provide information about individual quality. Although the evolutionary function and nature of the variability in colouration are well known for many invertebrate taxa, there is little information on this topic for ants. We studied individual variation in the melanin-based colour traits of workers of the red wood ant, Formica rufa (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), from 20 colonies in Southern Finland and revealed the type of colouration in this species. First, using the threshold approach we distinguished between continuous and discrete variations. Furthermore, the analyses affirmed nine discrete morphs in terms of the colouration on the head and eight on the pronotum, while only continuous variation were found on the other body parts. Measuring the size of a particular colour pattern, the intensity of colour expression (degree of melanization) and statistical analyses allowed an assessment of the intra-individual variation in both discrete and continuous patterns. The results revealed substantial modularity in the above mentioned colouration traits. In workers of F. rufa there were individuals with a dark head and light coloured thorax and vice a versa. Size of the dark pigment colour patterns exhibited less modularity than the degree of melanization. Finally, the interrelation between colouration traits and individual body size revealed their size-dependent origin. Small individuals had relatively larger areas of colour on the head and thorax than big individuals. These results are likely to facilitate further taxonomical and ecological studies on red wood ants, as they show it is possible to assess colouration traits in ants. However, more studies are needed on the function of polymorphism and modular colouration in this group of ants.

Reflex bleeding is one of the many anti-predation behavioural tactics used by insects. This behaviour is recorded widely in several insect taxa and provides scientists with an interesting opportunity for easily obtaining samples of haemolymph for physiological experiments. However, there is no good evidence that haemolymph and reflex blood have the same characteristics. In this study, we compared three basic characteristics of reflex blood and haemolymph collected from the body cavity, of three species of ladybirds: Harmonia axyridis, Coccinella septempunctata and Ceratomegilla undecimnotata. In the reflex blood we recorded the same concentration of haemocytes and total protein, and level of antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli as in samples of haemolymph collected from within the body cavity. Therefore, reflex blood is a promising source of haemolymph for use in many physiological and immunological studies. It is the best way of collecting haemolymph if one wants to avoid challenging the immune system and concurrently also enables one to repeatedly collect haemolymph from one individual without injuring it, which would initiate repair mechanisms. The interspecific comparison indicates significant differences among the species studied in three characteristics measured. Interestingly, the native species Ceratomegilla undecimnotata has nearly as effective immune system as the invasive Harmonia axyridis based on the level of antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli.

Two new species of Polydictya Guérin-Méneville, 1844 from Vietnam, P. grootaerti sp. n. from Central Vietnam and P. drumonti sp. n. from North Vietnam, are described and compared with the closest species, P. chantrainei Nagai & Porion, 2004 and P. kuntzi Nagai & Porion, 2004. The male genitalia are described and illustrated for the two new species as well as for P. vietnamica Constant & Pham, 2008 for the first time. Habitus details and photographs, a distribution map and photographs of specimens in nature when available, are provided. The occurrence of P. vietnamica from Thailand and Northeast India, noted here for the first time based on photographs taken in nature, requires confirmation based on the examination of specimens. An identification key to the species of Polydictya from the Indochinese region is provided.