Knowledge of the patterns in the spatial distribution of species provides valuable information about the factors (resources and environment) that regulate the use of space by animals. Typically, the distribution of litter-dwelling scorpions in Atlantic forests is correlated with the structure of their microhabitats, although to better understand their natural history more studies on the patterns in their use of space are required. Therefore, we investigated the effect of rainfall on the patterns in the spatial distributions and population densities of two sympatric species of scorpion, Tityus (Archaeotityus) pusillus Pocock 1893 and Ananteris mauryi Lourenço 1982 in a fragment of Atlantic Forest in Brazil. The study was carried out during the dry (September) and rainy (June) months. We collected 501 individuals (268 T. (A.) pusillus and 233 A. mauryi) by actively searching at night using UV lanterns. We found that the spatial distribution and population density of T. (A.) pusillus, but not A. mauryi, were significantly affected by rainfall, with T. (A.) pusillus individuals showing a clumped pattern during the rainy month and random distribution in the dry month. We also found a different response in the population densities of the two species, with T. (A.) pusillus but not A. mauryi being affected by rainfall. Our results indicate that, although co-habiting in leaf litter, these species respond differently to rainfall, which affects their spatial distribution and abundance in this habitat.

The effectiveness of natural enemies in controlling pests may be determined by many traits linked to their ability to regulate the density of their prey. In this respect, the phenomenon of pseudoparasitism, in which female parasitoids reject a host after inserting their ovipositor into it, is fairly common among hymenopteran parasitoids. However, in spite of this its effect on hosts is rarely reported in entomological and biological control literature. For this reason, in the present study, the pseudoparasitism by the parasitoid Spalangia cameroni Perkins of the Mediterranean pest Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) and its effect on several biological parameters of the host were studied under laboratory conditions. The results indicate that the percentage pseudoparasitism by S. cameroni of medfly in the laboratory is high, even slightly higher than host-feeding, which is commonly used to evaluate the potential of parasitoids as biological control agents. In addition, the adults that emerge from pseudoparasitized medfly pupae have a male-biased sex ratio, low levels of survival and are frequently damaged, which results in small adults and an inability to mate successfully. In conclusion, our results indicate that pseudoparasitism is common and enhances the effectiveness of S. cameroni attacking medfly, which highlights the importance of this phenomenon when selecting parasitoids to be included in a biological control programme.

The ant genus Cardiocondyla is characterized by wingless, ergatoid males, which in some species replace the typical winged male. Depending on species, ergatoid males engage in lethal fighting for access to sexual females, establish territories within their nests, or are mutually tolerant. Here we investigate, whether the morphology of ergatoid males and in particular the shape of their mandibles reflect phylogeny or male behaviour. In contrast to the worker mandible, which is relatively similar in shape in the ten species examined, mandibles of ergatoid males show a great variation in size and shape not only between the two clades of Cardiocondyla but also among species belonging to Cardiocondyla clade A. This diversity appears to reflect the diverse reproductive tactics of ergatoid males of different species, with extremely long, anteriorly oriented mandibles associated with indirect killing of adult competitors, while particularly short mandibles possibly constitute an adaptation to a tactic in which ergatoid males crush the cuticle of young rivals.

Water-filled tree holes are abundant microhabitats in forests worldwide and are inhabited by specialized communities of invertebrates. Despite their importance, the temporal dynamics of communities within and between years are largely unknown. Here, I present a case study on the phenology of insect larvae in two holes in a beech tree (lower and upper canopy) located in southern Germany over a period of three years. I asked whether water temperature and the characteristics of insect larvae at the community and population levels are similar in periodicity every year and whether they differ in the lower and upper canopy. The water temperature in tree holes differed greatly from air temperature, and this effect was more pronounced in the lower than in the upper canopy, which resulted in a lower probability of drying out occurring in the lower canopy. This was associated with a higher species richness in the lower canopy and greater abundance of drought tolerant species in the upper canopy. There was a significant periodicity in larval abundance, biomass, species richness and body size distribution of abundant species in both tree holes, but it was not seasonal. This result indicates that unpredictable drying out of tree holes are more important drivers of tree hole community dynamics than changes in water temperature. The community of larvae in the tree hole in the upper canopy lagged behind that in the lower canopy, which indicates that most species mainly colonize the more stable microhabitats in the lower canopy. Hopefully this case study will encourage future larger-scale phenological studies to test (1) whether the patterns observed in this study can be generalized over larger spatial scales and (2) the relative importance of abiotic and biotic drivers of the dynamics of communities in tree holes.

Dryocosmus kuriphilus (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae), also known as the Asian chestnut gall wasp, is a non-native invasive species that has recently appeared in many regions of Europe, including the Iberian Peninsula. This species is an important pest of chestnut trees in several regions and is of concern for foresters in these areas. The results of this research revealed 14 different hotspots of infestation of D. kuriphilus and resulted in the development of models that predict the distribution of D. kuriphilus in Spain over the next 37 years (2019-2055). These results indicate a rapid spread in all Spanish chestnut forests and identify areas that are theoretically highly suitable and susceptible to colonization by this cynipid based on predictions of three different niche models. Although D. kuriphilus is able to induce galls on all chestnut trees, the models indicate that there are differences in the suitability of the different regions for this species. This differential suitability results in some areas having better environmental conditions than others for D. kuriphilus, which is a factor that should be taken into account in its management and biological control. This study of the current distribution, patterns of dispersal using GIS and potentially suitable areas for D. kuriphilus, using niche models will assist in the management and control of this pest in Spain.

Brazilian native meliponines are currently threatened by increased human impacts. The assessment of their genetic variation by microsatellite DNA markers can assist in the conservation of populations and help in the planning and establishment of efficient management strategies. The purpose of this study was to develop the first set of microsatellite markers for Melipona fasciculata, selected from partial genome assembly of Illumina paired-end reads. Primer pairs were designed for each detected locus at their flanking regions. Bee samples were genotyped from two different populations of Northeastern Brazil for marker characterization and validation. A total of 17 microsatellite loci displayed polymorphism. Mean H_E and H_O heterozygosities were 0.453 and 0.536, respectively. PIC across all loci ranged from 0.108 to 0.714. A genetic diversity analysis revealed high values for population differentiation estimates (F_ST = 0.194, R_ST = 0.230, and D_est = 0.162) within the investigated region. PCoA and Bayesian clustering showed a separation of the species into two distinct clusters. These microsatellite markers have demonstrated strong potential for population-level genetic studies. Moreover, the preliminary analysis of the genetic diversity in M. fasciculata provides provisional evidence of significant population differentiation between the two studied populations.

Estimating the spatial dispersion of pest arthropods is crucial for the development of reliable sampling programs and one of the main components of integrated pest management. The natural spatial distribution of a population of a species may be random, uniform, or aggregated and can be so classified based on calculation of variance to mean relations and related dispersion indices. In this work some classical density-invariant dispersion indices and related regression models are used for the first time to quantify the spatial dispersion of an important peach pest Anarsia lineatella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) and construct fixed precision sequential sampling schemes. Taylor's power law, Iwao's patchiness regression and Nachman's model were used to analyse the damage to peaches caused by A. lineatella. All three regression models fit the data well, although the results indicate that Iwao's patchiness model provides a better description of the relationship between variance and mean density. Taylor's b and Iwao's b regression indices were both significantly smaller than 1, indicating that the distribution of individuals was uniform rather than random or aggregated. According to Green's and Kuno's models, the minimum sample size at the precision level of 0.2 varies from 3 samples, when total population density is more than 3 larvae/sample, to 10 samples, when population density is between 1 and 2 larvae/sample. Kuno's fixed sampling plan indicates that a small number of samples (i.e., 3-10 branches with fruit) is sufficient to estimate the mean population density of A. lineatella larvae with a precision of 0.2. The Resampling for validation of sampling plans (RVSP) method confirmed that the average level of precision of the fixed sequential plans matched the desired precision in most cases. The sampling plan presented here provides a level understanding of A. lineatella spatial ecology suitable for pest management decisions.

Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is a technique used to determine the chromosomal position of DNA and RNA probes. The present study contributes to knowledge on jumping plant-lice genomes by using FISH with 18S rDNA and telomeric (TTAGG)_n probes on meiotic chromosomes of Psylla alni (2n = 24 + X), Cacopsylla mali (2n = 22 + neo-XY and 20 + neo-X₁X₂Y), C. sorbi (2n = 20 + neo-XY), Baeopelma foersteri (2n = 14 + X), and Rhinocola aceris (2n = 10 + X). This is the first study that has used FISH on the hemipteran superfamily Psylloidea. We found that the chromosomes of all studied species contain the insect-type telomere motif, (TTAGG)_n. In C. mali and C. sorbi, the neo-sex chromosomes originating from autosome-sex chromosome fusions showed no interstitially located clusters of TTAGG repeats, suggesting their loss or inactivation. Similarly, no interstitial (TTAGG)_n clusters were detected in an extremely large autosome pair of B. foersteri that most likely originated from a fusion of at least five ancestral chromosome pairs. Clusters of 18S rDNA were detected on the fused and second largest autosome pairs of B. foersteri and on one of the large autosome pairs of the remaining species. In C. mali and B. foersteri, the rDNA clusters were shown to coincide with the NORs as detected by the AgNOR method. Finally, we speculate, based on the obtained FISH markers, on the mechanisms of karyotype evolution of psylloid species differing in chromosome numbers and sex chromosome systems.

We surveyed ladybirds (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) in 10 stands of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), all monoculture stands 5-100 years old, in western Slovakia, Central Europe, over two successive periods, October 2013 - March 2014 and October 2014 - March 2015. The winter in each period was exceptionally mild. Ladybirds were collected from the lower branches of pine trees using beating trays and were present in 61% of the 1040 samples (one sample containing ladybirds from 20 branches, 1 m long each). In total 3965 individuals of 20 species were recorded. Non-conifer dwelling species associated with broadleaved trees or herbaceous plants prevailed (45% of species), followed by conifer specialists (40%) and generalists (15%). Although 13 species were found at least in one winter month, December, January or February, only four of them, Exochomus quadripustulatus, Coccinella septempunctata, Harmonia axyridis and Hippodamia variegata, were recorded continually during both winters. The number of species, the abundance of all ladybirds and the abundance of dominant species (E. quadripustulatus, C. septempunctata and H. axyridis) decreased from late autumn towards winter and remained lowest during this most adverse time of the year for ladybirds. Overwintering species assemblages of ladybirds changed over time and varied with age of pine stand. Our results suggest that Scots pine in Central Europe supports species rich assemblages of ladybirds from late autumn to early spring and, being widely distributed, it could be suited to winter surveying of ladybirds at large spatial scales to reveal behavioural and ecological responses of species to changing weather or different climates.

The factors that affect the local distribution of the invasive Harmonia axyridis are not yet completely resolved. Hypotheses predicting positive and independent effects of prey abundance and degree of urbanization on the adult abundance of this species in Central Europe were tested. Populations of H. axyridis were sampled in a period when it was most abundant, by sweeping lime trees (Tilia spp.) at 28 sites along a 20 km transect across urban (western Prague) and surrounding rural areas. The sites differed in aphid abundance (number of Eucallipterus tiliae per 100 sweeps) and degree of urbanization (percentage of the surrounding area within a 500 m radius covered by impervious human constructions). Multiple linear regression analysis of log-transformed data revealed that abundance of H. axyridis (number of adults per 100 sweeps) increased significantly with both aphid abundance (P = 0.015) and urbanization (P = 0.045). The positive relationship between degree of urbanization and abundance of H. axyridis was thus not a side effect of variation in aphid abundance, which was also greater in urban than rural areas. The effect of urbanization might constrict the habitat available to H. axyridis and force this species to aggregate in urban green "refugia". These results point to a plurality of factors that determine coccinellid abundance at natural sites.

Silk production quantity is the most economically important characteristic of the domesticated silkworm moth, Bombyx mori. It is controlled by multiple loci. The cocoon and silk production quantity of silkworm strains Jingsong and Lan10 have significantly diverged. A backcross population (BC₁) was bred using Jingsong and Lan10 as parents to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for silk quality. In this research, a genetic linkage map of the silkworm was constructed using the BC₁ mapping population. The map contained 85 sequence-tagged site markers, 80 simple sequence repeat markers, and 16 single nucleotide polymorphisms. A linkage map was constructed from the data, which consisted of 181 markers distributed over 28 expected linkage groups and spans 2147.1 cM in total length. Fourteen QTLs were detected for cocoon filament length, whole cocoon weight, pupae weight, filament weight, and cocoon shell weight. The 14 QTLs were distributed in 5 linkage groups (linkage groups 1, 14, 18, 23 and 25) based on the constructed linkage map. In addition, five QTLs, which had the highest logarithm (base 10) of odds (LOD) values, were located on the first chromosome, three of which located at the same region in linkage group 1. These results represent an important foundation for the map-based cloning of QTLs and marker-assisted selection for improving the silk quality of economically important silkworm strains.

Laboratory experiments were conducted to examine the effects of photoperiod and temperature on the pupation behaviour of the parasitoid, Microplitis mediator (Haliday) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), parasitizing larvae of Mythimna separata Walker (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). A combination of long photoperiod (14 + h L) and warm temperatures (20-24°C) caused parasitized caterpillars to climb to upper plant parts where the parasitoid produced a green, non-diapausing cocoon on a green leaf, initially retaining the dying caterpillar host as a protective covering. In contrast, short photoperiod (8-10 h L) and low temperature (16-18°C) induced host caterpillars to descend the plant where the parasitoid produced a brown, diapausing cocoon either hanging by silk from a senescing leaf or simply lying on the soil, but without any continued association with the host. These findings illustrate the potential for seasonal environmental cues to simultaneously mediate diapause induction, cocoon polymorphism, and alternate forms of host behaviour modification in a hymenopterous parasitoid.

Competition is a major force organizing ant communities and results in co-occurring species evolving different strategies for foraging and use of space. Territorial species, as top dominants exclude each other, while shaping the local ant communities both qualitatively and quantitatively. In this study we examined how two territorial species, Formica polyctena and Lasius fuliginosus, can coexist in adjacent territories over long periods of time, and whether they affect co-occurring species of ants in different ways. Field observations in the absence and in the presence of baits were carried out around a L. fuliginosus nest complex surrounded by a polydomous F. polyctena colony in S Finland in 2007-2009. Both species controlled their territories, but were affected by changes in the abundance of the other species and the distance from L. fuliginosus' main nest. They did not have the same effect on the subordinate species in the absence of baits, but the abundance of Myrmica spp. recorded at baits was negatively affected by both of the territorial species. The preferences of the different species for the artificial food sources differed: L. fuliginosus and F. polyctena preferred tuna to honey and Myrmica spp. honey to tuna. More individuals of the subordinate species were recorded in the territory of F. polyctena than of L. fuliginosus, although conflicts with this territorial species were also recorded. During the three years of the study almost no overlaps in the territories of the two territorial species were recorded, and there were mostly minor shifts in the boundaries of the territories. Differences between the two territorial species in their use of space and competitive effects ensured their coexistence at this particular site in Finland.

The ribosomal protein S6 kinase (S6K) plays a pivotal role in developmental processes and cell survival by participating in protein synthesis relevant signaling pathways. In the present study, an S6K gene (AccS6K-p70) was isolated and characterized from the Chinese honeybee, Apis cerana cerana (Fabricius) (Hymenoptera: Apidae), an important economic insect in the agricultural industry. The cDNA of AccS6K-p70 was 1683 bp in length and predicted to encode a protein of 467 amino acid residues. Sequence and structure analysis showed that there was a conserved catalytic domain in AccS6K-p70, whilst a phosphorylation site was found in the conserved part of the catalytic domain. Development relevant transcription factor binding sites found in the 5'-flanking region of AccS6K-p70 suggest that AccS6K-p70 might be involved in A. c. cerana development. Furthermore, quantitative PCR revealed that the expression levels of AccS6K-p70 were higher in head and thorax than in other tissues. The AccS6K-p70 was highly expressed in both larvae and adults compared with that in pupae, whilst expression of the gene was significantly down-regulated by hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) (although initially and slightly increased by it) and pyriproxyfen (a juvenile hormone analogue insecticide) stresses. These results suggest that AccS6K-p70 may play critical roles in developmental processes and cell survival in A. c. cerana, whilst both oxidative stress and pyriproxyfen may impair S6K-p70 mediated developmental processes by down-regulation of AccS6K-p70 expression.

Larvae of the endangered Scarce Large Blue butterfly, Phengaris (Maculinea) teleius, are initially endophytic, feeding upon developing seeds of Sanguisorba officinalis, but complete their development as social parasites preying on the brood of Myrmica ants. Females show very specific preferences, laying eggs exclusively in young flower heads of the food plant. In the present contribution we report the results of a detailed study of female behaviour at three sites differing in size and abundance of S. officinalis. Tracked individuals switched between feeding on nectar (nectaring), flight and oviposition. They fed exclusively on flowers of reddish, pink or violet colouration, favouring Viccia cracca and S. officinalis. However, females spent about one fifth of the time they were active ovipositing and laid about 20 eggs per hour. Oviposition visits to flower heads were highly stereotyped and followed a specific ritual. Examination of accepted, rejected and randomly sampled flower heads showed that females avoided those containing conspecific eggs and at a site where this was difficult due to a shortage of suitable flower heads, they tended to distribute their eggs evenly among the available flower heads. Our results indirectly indicate the existence of an oviposition-deterring pheromone (ODP) in P. teleius. This hypothetical marking ensures a more even distribution of eggs and possibly increases the chances of survival of caterpillars by reducing competition during both the phytophagous and myrmecophagous stages of development. There are few reports of butterflies producing ODPs and to our knowledge this is the first evidence of their presence in the family Lycaenidae.

As urbanisation is set to continue, understanding the impact on wildlife becomes increasingly important if we are to be able to conserve biodiversity. As an excellent group of bioindicators, invertebrates can allow us to understand some of the forces in urban areas which impact upon biodiversity and wildlife populations. This paper discusses some of the trends in the abundance, diversity and richness of invertebrates related to urbanisation and the specific urban environmental and traffic factors which may be at play.

The effects of landscape attributes on Lepidoptera communities were studied in an agricultural area in Calabria (S-Italy). The association between a set of community descriptors and landscape metrics was determined using a multi-scale approach. Lepidoptera were sampled using yellow sticky traps in 10 olive groves. The landscape in 5 concentric areas, with radii from 250 to 1250 m, around each sampling site was analyzed. The composition and configuration of the landscape were calculated both at the landscape and class level based on the main classes of land use. The following life-history traits of Lepidoptera were considered: (i) dispersal ability of adults, (ii) habitat preferences and (iii) diet breadth of larvae. An index of community vulnerability was calculated by combining life-history traits and species diversity. There were no significant correlations between any of the landscape metrics and species richness or between species richness and abundance of natural or semi-natural habitats. However, life-history traits were significantly correlated with some landscape metrics, depending on the spatial scale. Most notably, landscape diversity is positively correlated with community vulnerability. The presence of sensitive species in olive orchards, but not species richness per se, is associated with the presence of natural and semi-natural habitats in the surrounding agricultural landscape. In conclusion, responses of communities to landscape changes are more likely to be revealed by an analysis of ecological traits, than species richness. In particular, the vulnerability index, used in this joint analysis of the main ecological traits, seems to be an effective descriptor of the relationships between communities and landscape.

Small-scale soil disturbance, such as animal mounds created by subterraneous ecosystem engineers are important microhabitats for species of conservation concern. There are many studies on the effects of ecosystem engineers on plant species diversity and soil properties, but the influence of such organisms on other taxa, such as insects, are rarely analyzed. In this paper, we demonstrate for the first time the role of molehills produced by the European Mole (Talpa europaea) (Linnaeus, 1758) as a larval habitat for a threatened butterfly species within central European calcareous grasslands. We selected the grizzled skipper (Pyrgus malvae) (Linnaeus, 1758) as a study species as previous studies revealed that it prefers warm and open microhabitats for oviposition. Our study clearly showed that host plants occurring on or in the close vicinity of molehills were regularly occupied by immature stages of P. malvae. Occupied host plants at these disturbed sites were characterized by a more open vegetation structure with a higher proportion of bare ground or stones and a lower cover of the herb layer compared with available host plants (control samples). Among molehills those were preferred that had the highest cover of host plants, especially Agrimonia eupatoria. Molehills are important larval habitats for P. malvae in calcareous grasslands on deeper soils. At these sites succession occurs rapidly and the amount of bare ground is usually low, even when they are managed. In contrast to other known breeding sites in calcareous grasslands, molehills with a high cover of host plants provide ideal conditions for the successful larval development of P. malvae: (i) sufficient food during the larval period and (ii) warm microclimatic conditions.

Northern bumblebees (Hymenoptera: Apidae) with annual lifecycles depend both on energy stores remaining in their fat body after diapause and a few spring flowering plants. Most temperate bumblebees emerge gradually over several months after winter depending on the species and within species on the location of the overwintering chamber (hibernaculum). Weather can either delay or promote emergence and nectar resources are needed to fuel flight at low ambient temperatures to find a nest site. Several phoretic mites use queens for transportation and have synchronized life cycles with their host species. Their presence on the body of bumblebees is usually harmless but can become harmful when the number of mites increases to hundreds per individual bee. High numbers of mites on queens may also indicate the queens are in poor condition. The effect of temperature and mite load on the time for which queens can survive (d) during a 25-day period of starvation were determined using newly emerged spring queens of B. lucorum. Queens collected from various locations in SW Finland were divided into four groups taking into account their initial load of Parasitellus fucorum mites: (A) 15°C and provided with only water; (B) 24°C and provided with only water; (C) 15°C and provided with pollen and nectar; (D) 24°C and provided with pollen and nectar. There were mites on 65% (50 out of 77) of the queens. All of the fed queens survived and starved queens died, with those kept at 24°C dying approximately 8 days before those kept at 15°C. Queen weight or mite load had no effect on the length of the period for which they survived and there was no difference in the weights of the queens in the different mite load classes. Asynchrony between plants and insect as well as increased frost damage due to climate change may affect nectar availability in spring. Therefore, the survival and long term viability of bumblebee populations should be monitored during variable spring conditions.

In order to understand patterns of abundances of migratory Lepidoptera in southernmost Europe and contrast this with those of sedentary species, we studied butterflies surveyed along transects during three spring migration seasons at the Rock of Gibraltar. Overall, 2508 butterflies belonging to 19 species were recorded. Of these, the four most numerous species accounted for almost 88% of all individuals recorded. These were the migratory Clouded Yellow Colias croceus, Red Admiral Vanessa atalanta and Painted Lady Vanessa cardui, and the sedentary Common Blue Polyommatus icarus. There was a significant correlation between abundance of P. icarus and C. croceus. Furthermore, abundances of C. croceus and V. atalanta were correlated. The sometimes very high abundance of migratory butterflies at the study site could suggest that Gibraltar is a stopover site for butterflies migrating between Africa and Europe.

The aim of this study was to investigate the composition of the fungal community associated with the red-haired bark beetle (Hylurgus ligniperda Fabricius) in two plantations of Pinus sylvestris L. located in the Kharkiv and Luhansk regions (ca. 250 km apart) in the forest-steppe zone in eastern Ukraine. In each plantation, 48 beetles were collected from butts of living trees and 48 beetles from stems of fallen trees, i.e., a total of 96. Half of the beetles from each site were used for culturing fungi and the other half for direct sequencing the internal transcribed spacer of fungal ribosomal RNA (ITS rRNA). Thirty distinct fungal taxa were identified by culturing and 31 by direct sequencing. When pooled, there were 40 fungal taxa among which Ophiostoma piceae (Münch) Sydow & P. Sydow (10.3%), Alternaria alternata (Fries) Keissler (9.7%), Ogataea neopini Nagatsuka, S. Saito & Sugiyama (8.0%), Botryotinia fuckeliana (de Bary) Whetzel (5.1%), Cladosporium sp. Link (5.1%) and Sydowia polyspora (Brefeld & Tavel) E. Müller (4.6%) were the most common. Species of the genus Ophiostoma were the most abundant and included five different taxa O. piceae, O. bicolor R.W. Davidson & D.E. Wells, O. ips (Rumbold) Nannfeldt, O. canum (Münch) Sydow & P. Sydow and O. rectangulosporium Ohtaka, Masuya & Yamaoka, all of which are known to be at most weak pathogens of trees. The plant pathogen Botryotinia fuckeliana and insect pathogens Isaria farinose (Holmskjold) Fries and Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo-Crivelli) Vuillemin were also detected. Basidiomycetes were rare, among which three wood-decaying fungi Bjerkandera adusta (Willdenow) P. Karsten, Fomitopsis pinicola (Swartz) P. Karsten and Heterobasidion annosum (Fries) Brefeld were detected. In conclusion, in the forest-steppe zone in eastern Ukraine H. ligniperda is a vector of diverse communities of fungi the majority of which, if at all, are only weak pathogens of trees.

Carabid beetles could potentially provide a number of ecosystem services in arable fields, including the regulation of weeds by eating seeds. Spatio-temporal variability in the incidence of predation combined with a limited understanding of the interactions between carabids and seed predation, currently limits our ability to assess the effectiveness of this service. We carried out a long-term field study of carabid communities and the incidence of predation of the seeds of 5 species of weeds and laboratory cafeteria choice-tests to quantify the preferences of the most abundant species of seed-eating carabid for the seeds of 10 species of weeds. The field study revealed important temporal variation both in carabid activity-density and seed predation, with the seed of Viola arvensis and Capsella bursa-pastoris being particularly preferred by the carabids. The laboratory cafeteria tests confirmed the predation preferences measured in the field, in showing strong preferences by both Pterostichus melanarius and Pseudoophonus rufipes for the seed of V. arvensis. The percentage predation of the seed of V. arvensis was associated with the activity-density of carabids, while that of the seed of C. bursa-pastoris was not. Integrating laboratory-measured daily consumption rates, per carabid taxa, into models improved the ability to predict the intensity of predation of the seed of V. arvensis based on the composition of carabid communities.

Knowledge of the dispersal ability of endangered species is crucial for developing effective, evidence-based conservation policies. Due to their limited dispersal abilities and specific habitat requirements, insects are among the animals most threatened by habitat fragmentation. We studied three populations of the highly endangered species of ground beetle, Carabus hungaricus, at three sites in Central Europe (Hungary and Czech Republic) using mark-release-recapture (MRR). The total catch of 574 pitfall traps set at the three sites was 6255 individuals. Depending on the site, the percentage recaptured was 13-32%. Average and maximum distance moved by individuals of both sexes at each of the sites ranged between 47-132 and 207-1104 m, respectively. The probability of the movements following an inverse power function (IPF) for the two sexes did not differ, but did differ among sites. Probability of dispersing for distances >100 m differed by an order of magnitude between sites, most likely because of differences in how the samples were collected. Despite the fact that individual beetles are able to move over distances in the order of kilometres, the high fragmentation of their habitats is likely to prevent them from colonizing most uninhabited habitat patches. Therefore, the conservation of this threatened ground beetle could be improved by adopting and implementing a policy of assisted dispersal. Our results from three study sites also provide an interesting illustration of the variability in the estimates of the probability of dispersal obtained using MRR.

An inventory of the carabid fauna was carried out in two post-industrial areas in central Poland. The two areas studied were a heap of ash generated by a power station and a colliery spoil heap. In each area sites of different ages were investigated using pitfall traps over an eight year period from 2004 to 2011. At the end of this period each of the youngest sites was as old, or even older, than the next oldest site studied in each area. A pine forest growing on natural soil close to the ash heap was included as a reference study site. Changes were described in terms of the numbers of species and individuals, total biomass, Mean Individual Biomass of Carabidae (MIB) and the most frequently collected species. Indirect and direct gradient analyses were carried out in order to determine the environmental basis of the major pattern in variation and analyse the relationships with current environmental parameters. During the eight years of this study 5032 individuals of 84 species were collected. Numbers of individuals decreased significantly with the age of the sites on the ash heap and the MIB values increased significantly on both heaps. Changes in the most frequently collected species were more pronounced on the spoil heap, the study sites on which covered a time span of 26 years, than on the ash heap, for which the period was only 11 years. Characteristic species differed on the spoil and ash heaps and numbers of species were lower on the spoil heap. Despite differences in speed of succession at the sites studied, there was a tendency for the MIB to increase after about 9 to 16 years. Indirect and direct gradients analyses confirmed that the stage of succession (age of the study sites) was an important factor determining the carabid assemblages at the sites studied. The results of this study are important for the restoration and management of post-industrial areas.

In herbivorous insects, differences in the degree of specialization to host plants emerge when the distribution of an herbivore differs from that of its host plants, which results in a mosaic of populations differing in performance on the different host plants. Using a specialized butterfly, Battus polydamas archidamas Boisduval, 1936, which feeds exclusively on the genus Aristolochia, we test whether host plant co-occurrence and associated differences in host quality modify local adaptation in terms of larval preference and performance. We compared individuals from a monospecific host stand of Aristolochia chilensis with those from a mixed host stand of A. chilensis and A. bridgesii. Individuals were reared in a reciprocal transfer experiment in which source population and the host species fed to larvae were fully crossed in a two-by-two factorial experiment in order to quantify their preference, performance (development time, size and growth rate) and survival. Individuals from both populations preferred the species they ate during their larval development over the other host, which indicates host plant-induced preference with non-adaptive implications. Larvae from mixed and monospecific stands grew faster and survived better when reared on A. bridgesii than A. chilensis. Larvae from a monospecific host stand grew slower and fewer individuals survived under the same local conditions, which is contrary to expectations. Therefore, rearing the butterfly on A. bridgesii consistently resulted in better performance, which indicates that the monospecific population is less well adapted to its host than the mixed population. Variation in the occurrence of the two host plants in the two populations can result in divergent selection due to the variation in plant quality, which in this case could result in opposing adaptive processes.

Macrocentrus cingulum is an important polyembryonic endoparasitic wasp that attacks larvae of the Asian corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenée) and the European corn borer, O. nubilalis (Hübner). Parasitoids use antennae as the main sensory organ to recognize herbivore-induced plant volatiles as host searching cues. The antennal olfaction proteins, odorant receptors (ORs) and ionotropic receptors (IRs) are involved in olfactory signal transduction pathway as a sensory neuron response. In the present study, we constructed a cDNA library from the male and female antennae for identifying the olfaction-related genes in M. cingulum. For that, we sequenced 3160 unique gene sequences and annotated them with gene ontology (GO), cluster of orthologous groups of proteins (COG), and KEGG ontology (KO). Through the homology search, we identified 9 odorant receptors (ORs), 3 ionotropic receptors (IRs) and 1 odorant binding protein (OBP) genes from the cDNA library sequences. Additionally, the expression patterns of these ORs and IRs in different tissues (antennae, heads, thoraxes, abdomens, and legs) were demonstrated by RT-PCR. The qualitative gene expression analyses showed that most of the OR genes were more highly expressed in female than male antennae; whereas IRs, unlike ORs, were more expressed in various male than females tissues. We are the first to report ORs and IRs in M. cingulum, which should help in deciphering the molecular basis of olfaction system in this wasp.

Until recently, the Canadian distribution of the blueberry maggot, Rhagoletis mendax Curran (Diptera: Tephritidae), was restricted to Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick. The insect was first mentioned in southern Quebec in 1996 and, to date, it has not reached the Lac St-Jean region, where 34% of Canadian blueberry acreage is located. Two questions concerning the northern limit of distribution of the blueberry maggot in Quebec were addressed. First, are wild plants suitable hosts for larval development? We collected the fruit of five wild plants, (e.g. Vaccinium corymbosum, Vaccinium angustifolium, Vaccinium myrtilloides, Gaylussacia baccata, and Aronia melanocarpa) growing in southern Quebec and allowed larvae to complete their development into pupae. Blueberry maggot pupae were recovered from Vaccinium corymbosum, Vaccinium angustifolium, and Gaylussacia baccata, indicating that these plants are suitable for larval development. Second, are harsh winter temperatures a factor limiting the northern distribution of the blueberry maggot? Pupae collected in Quebec and Nova Scotia were put in the soil in the fall and were brought back to the laboratory to determine their supercooling points at different times during winter. The supercooling points of pupae collected in Quebec and Nova Scotia averaged -22.6°C. In natural conditions, air temperatures <-20°C are frequently observed in Quebec in January, February and March. However, due to snow cover, soil temperatures are rarely <-12°C. If -22.6°C constitutes the lower limit for the survival, then winter temperatures are probably not a limiting factor to its northern distribution in Quebec, because blueberry maggot pupae overwinter in the soil.

Several studies address the question of which forest attributes are most important for the conservation of biodiversity. Unfortunately, there are no unequivocal answers because the response of a biological group to changes in forest structure depends on its natural history and scale of organization. It is important to increase our knowledge of the potential relationships between under studied groups of species and forest variables in order to adopt timber harvesting strategies not detrimental to biodiversity, especially in old-growth forests. We assessed the importance of 10 forest attributes and old-growth for Psychidae (Lepidoptera) species and communities. Research was carried out in 12 forest stands in a mountainous beech dominated landscape in southern Italy, in the middle of the Mediterranean Basin. Samples were collected in 2001 and 2013 and data were merged after pairwise comparison analyses that confirmed the long term stability of communities. Correspondence Analysis, Cluster Analysis and non-parametric Spearman Rank Order Correlation were used to identify determinants of Psychidae abundance and diversity. We collected 2,732 Psychidae belonging to 8 species. Correspondence analysis identified old-growth as the main determinant of communities. Most significant attributes for individual species were beech dominance, diameter at breast height and its standard deviation. For Taleporia defoliella there were positive correlations with these forest parameters, whereas for Psyche crassiorella the correlations were negative. This study underlined the importance of forest attributes associated with old-growth forests for sustaining biodiversity. These findings indicate the need to incorporate these attributes in forest planning, especially those aspects that are easily recognizable such as the number of large trees.

The Tisza River Basin is an important area as it is a green corridor in which there are highly endangered habitats and a high level of biodiversity. The patterns in the species richness of invertebrates and the environmental conditions affecting these patterns are poorly studied in the grassy habitats in the lower reaches of the Tisza River Basin. The present study focuses on the effects of flooding, habitat and landscape features on the species richness of orthopterans at 24 grassland sites in two different landscapes. The relations between the explanatory variables and the pattern of diversity of orthopterans with different life-history traits were studied, using ordination and Generalized Linear Mixed Models. Although the influential factors for the different trait groups differed, we suggest that landscape features are the most important in shaping orthopteran assemblages, whereas habitat characteristics and flooding have comparatively little effect. Habitat characteristics affected only the non-xerophilous and Ensifera species and only the species richness of non-xerophilous orthopterans in flooded and non-flooded sites differed. We emphasize that even in countries where there are still considerable areas of high value natural grasslands, such as Hungary, non-protected meadows, linear grassy habitats (dikes, ditch banks, road verges, etc.) need more attention and should be given higher priority in the conservation of invertebrates.

The tendency for self-superparasitism and it's effects on the quality of the parasitoid Ooencyrtus pityocampae (Mercet) (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) in parasitizing a new laboratory host, Philosamia ricini (Danovan) (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae), were investigated. In this study, female parasitoids of various ages (1-, 3- and 5-day-old) were tested individually. Parasitoids were provided with 1-day-old P. ricini eggs at ratios of 5, 10, 20, 30 and 40 host eggs per wasp. The tendency to superparasitize was dependent on the female's age and host density. Five-day-old females showed a strong tendency to superparasitize at low host densities. The development time of wasps in superparasitized eggs was longer than that of wasps in singly parasitized eggs. The size and longevity of adult parasitoids decreased significantly with superparasitism. This work contributes to the development of an efficient mass rearing and laboratory rearing of the parasitoid O. pityocampae using a new host.