The nymphs of spittlebugs (Hemiptera, Cercopidae) are xylem-feeders and live on herbs, grasses or woody plants within their self-produced spittle masses. Nymphs of the spittlebug Neophilaenus albipennis live aggregated in these spittle masses on their host plant Brachypodium pinnatum, a common grass in dry grassland. The objective of this study was to estimate nymphal mortality rates and to examine what role aggregation and vegetation structure play in the mortality of the nymphs. The aggregation and mortality were measured using two different methods, direct monitoring and caging of nymphs. The nymphs passively aggregated with up to 4 nymphs per spittle and aggregation decreased with instar. The aggregation of the nymphs resulted in a reduced mortality in all instars. Although it has already been argued that aggregation may be an advantage, this study is the first direct evidence (i.e. direct measurement of single individuals) for the benefit of aggregation to individual spittlebug nymphs. Despite a clumped distribution of N. albipennis nymphs in tall vegetation, nymphal mortality was not correlated with vegetation height.

The imagines, cast skin of the final larval instar, and venom apparatus of Chorebus pseudoasphodeli sp. n., an endoparasitoid of Phytomyza chaerophylli Kaltenbach, 1856 on Daucus carota L., and Chorebus pseudoasramenes sp. n., an endoparasitoid of Cerodontha phragmitophila Hering, 1935 on Arundo donax L., two new species of Dacnusini from Spain, are described, illustrated, and compared with those of allied species. The immature larvae, mature larva, and pupa of C. pseudoasphodeli sp. n. are also described, illustrated, and compared. Morphological structures of phylogenetic value are discussed, and keys for the discrimination of the imagines are provided.

In searching both for food to produce eggs and for suitable oviposition sites, females of aphidophagous ladybirds must be adapted to exploit prey that vary greatly in their occurrence and abundance over both space and time. A simple model of ladybird searching and oviposition behaviour emerged in the 1950s: adult ladybirds are highly mobile in traversing the landscape, but become less active and produce more eggs as their rate of aphid consumption increases. The net result is that most eggs tend to be laid at sites of high aphid density. Laboratory and field experiments and observations over the past several decades have generally supported this basic model, although the linkage between ladybird dispersal activity and local aphid density often appears to be relatively weak. Not all ladybird eggs are laid in patches of high aphid density. Females use resources from limited prey consumption to produce eggs in modest numbers. They may thus be prepared to lay some eggs quickly when they succeed in finding aphids in high numbers, but otherwise they may have little choice but to lay these eggs in suboptimal sites. Upon locating patches of high prey density, females are faced with the decision of how long to remain. The basic model raises the possibility that these females become passively trapped at such patches until local aphid density collapses. Recent studies, however, suggest that detection of oviposition-deterring pheromones may promote earlier departure from prey patches. Females may also have an innate tendency to disperse throughout their lives regardless of local conditions, as a bet-hedging strategy to spread their eggs widely over space. Additional studies are needed to evaluate further the degree to which females actively determine and vary the rhythms of dispersal and reproduction in response to the unpredictable and short-lived nature of populations of their aphid prey.

The subfamily Metriorrhynchinae is the most species-rich clade of Lycidae (Coleoptera). A recent proposal suggests that the Erotinae is a sister group of the Metriorrhynchinae. Within the Metriorrhynchinae, evidence is presented for the monophyly of the Conderini and Metriorrhynchini and their sister group position. The Trichalina, Hemiconderina and Metriorrhynchina form the tribe Metriorrhynchini. The relationships between the basal lineages of this group are poorly understood. Several clades are distinguished within the Metriorrhynchina, but there is only weak evidence supporting a relationships between them. The distribution of individual clades is discussed. Carathrix Kleine, 1926 (= Pseudodontocerus Pic, 1921), Dilolycus Kleine, 1926 (= Metriorrhynchus Gemminger et Harold, 1869), Flabelloporrostoma Pic, 1923 (= Metriorrhynchus Gemminger et Harold, 1869), Rossioptera Kasantsev, 1988 (= Xylobanellus Kleine, 1930), Samanga Pic, 1921 (= Broxylus C.O. Waterhouse, 1879), Strophicus C. O. Waterhouse, 1879 (= Enylus C.O. Waterhouse, 1879), and Tapromenoeus Bocak et Bocakova, 1989 (= Prometanoeus Kleine, 1925) are proposed as junior synonyms. Pseudosynchonnus Pic, 1922 is transferred to the Erotinae (Taphini) and Pseudosynchonnus Pic, 1922, Protaphes Kleine, 1926, and Parapyropterus Kleine, 1926 are proposed to be junior subjective synonyms of Lycoprogenthes Pic, 1915. Redescriptions of Metriorrhynchinae genera and a key to genera are provided.

The third instar larvae of three Anisoplia species, Anisoplia baetica Erichson, 1847, Anisoplia depressa Erichson, 1847 and Anisoplia remota Reitter, 1889 are described and illustrated to show the diagnostic characters of the species. The third instar larva of the monospecific genus Anthoplia, represented by Anthoplia floricola (F., 1787) is also described and illustrated. These four species are included in a revised key to the larvae of Anisopliini, which now includes four genera, and ten species. The taxonomic status of Anthoplia based on the larval morphology, is discussed.

Many stress-induced genes, including those related to the insect humoral immune response, are upregulated during diapause even in the absence of stress. We further test the relationship between stress genes and diapause in Sarcophaga crassipalpis by cloning sarcotoxin II, a member of the attacin family, and examining its expression pattern in relation to pupal diapause. Unlike several other stress-related genes, sarcotoxin II is not developmentally upregulated during diapause, but it remains fully responsive to immune challenge. Interestingly, the elevation of sarcotoxin II mRNA in response to body wall injury, but not immune challenge, is initiated more slowly and persists longer in diapausing pupae than in nondiapausing individuals.

The larvae of Netocia morio (Fabricius, 1781), Netocia oblonga (Gory & Percheron, 1833), Potosia opaca (Fabricius, 1787) and Potosia cuprea brancoi Baraud 1992 are described. Comparison of the morphology of both genera revealed important differences in raster structure, mandibles and frontal setae. The systematic position of both genera based on larval characteristics is discussed. Some aspects of larval biology are discussed.

The unusual wing characters of the Permian insect Permostridulus brongniarti gen. n., sp. n. justifies the creation of a new family, the Permostridulidae fam. n., within the Panorthoptera. Phylogenetic relationships with the extinct order Caloneurodea, related to the Orthoptera (crickets, grasshoppers), are assumed. This assumption suggests an occurrence of the Permostridulidae at least since the Upper Carboniferous. The most prominent feature of the wing venation is a stridulatory apparatus, nonhomologous with those previously known in "panorthopterid" lineages. This is the oldest recorded sound-producing device of an animal.

1) Alloxystinae are major secondary parasitoids of aphids, important in both their ecology and pest management. 2) Two radically differing views of alloxystine taxonomy exist in the literature, in one of which the group is very diverse, in the other it consists of a few variable species. 3) We sequenced a variable nuclear gene region (ITS2) for 28 specimens of a morphologically clearly defined group which, in one view belong to a single species and in the other to four species. We find that the four putative species each carry a different unique allele with no intraspecific variation. We show that the probability of the observed distribution of alleles under the assumption of a single interbreeding population is very small and we reject the view that all specimens belong to a single biological species. 4) We discuss the implications of our results for aphid - parasitoid community ecology and the biological control of aphids with parasitoids.

A nonpigmenting strain of Serratia marcescens Bizio isolated from dead and apparently diseased wild apple maggot flies, Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh), was shown to be pathogenic to healthy apple maggot flies upon ingestion. The microorganism was detected in live adult alimentary canal organs four days post ingestion but produced death in some flies within 24 h when flies fed on a cell concentration of 4.7 × 104 cfu/ml and within 8 h when flies fed on filter-sterilized culture medium that previously contained a 21 h culture of S. marcescens. Increasing the cell concentration 10,000 fold did not lead to an increased rate of kill. Young flies (7-10 days old) were more susceptible to infection leading to death than were older flies (21-28 days old). The potential use of S. marcescens cells as control agents against apple maggot flies is negated by their pathogenicity to vertebrates; however, the potential use of toxic compounds produced by this strain of S. marcescens is discussed.

Diapause intensity (DI) is a physiological trait represented by the duration of diapause under given conditions of environment. In many species, it is highly variable, probably being controlled by multiple genes and tends to form a cline in response to the latitudinal gradient of selection pressure. DI clines could be established artificially by crossing between lines of a cricket selected for different levels of DI, indicating the importance of genetic factors in the adaptive variation of DI. However, DI may be modified in response to seasonal cues both before and after the onset of diapause. Polymorphism in the intensity of prolonged diapause may split adults of a single population to emerge in different years. A unimodal distribution of DI may also result in polymodal termination of diapause, if DI variation is so large that chilling in one winter is not enough to terminate diapause for all members of a population. Bimodal termination of diapause after overwintering suggests heterogeneity in the final phase of diapause that requires high temperatures in spring. Polymodal termination of diapause subserves a bet-hedging strategy. Variability in DI thus provides insects with an important means of adaptation to their environments changing in space and time.

The influence of cucumber offered as a host plant either alone or with Aphis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae) was studied on the various life table and biological characteristics of the predatory bug Macrolophus pygmaeus Rambur (Hemiptera: Miridae). The nymphal development was studied at 15, 20, 25, 30 and 35°C while adult performance was assessed at 15, 20, 25 and 30°C, using a 16L : 8D photoperiod and 65 ± 5% r.h. Nymphs completed their development at all temperatures except at 35°C. Nymphal development took significantly longer time in the absence than in the presence of prey at 20 and 25°C, but the reverse was true at 15°C. Nymphal mortality was highest at 15°C in the presence of prey and it was mainly recorded at the first and second stages. Females oviposited a small number of eggs at all temperatures but not at 30°C in the absence of prey. The average number of eggs per female was almost similar with or without prey, being highest at 20°C, and adult longevity was highest at 15°C. The results concerning population parameters clearly showed that cucumber with or without prey can not support a population increase of M. pygmaeus. However, it seems that A. gossypii on cucumber inhibits development of M. pygmaeus more than when this aphid species is not present. This adverse effect on this host plant-prey system possibly results from the particular aphid genotype on cucumber, leading to high nymphal mortality, reduced fecundity and short adult life-span of M. pygmaeus.

Two new species of Enclisis Townes, 1970 from Spain are described and illustrated: E. dichroma sp.n. and E. schwarzi sp.n. The new species are distinguished from the closest species E. infernator and E. ornaticeps by head and leg characters and body colour. Data on their phenology and a key to these four European species are presented. External and internal scanning electron microscopy of male tyloids revealed that these structures, in both new species, have a secretory role.

The absolute population density of adult Pardosa agrestis (Westring, 1862), the dominant epigeic spider species in many arable lands in Central Europe, was quantified in two alfalfa fields using a multiple mark-recapture method. The resulting density estimates are presented together with catch data from simultaneously performed suction sampling and pitfall trapping. Two week long mark-recapture surveys were conducted in August 1995 and 1996 using grids of 11 × 11 live-catching pitfall traps covering a square area of 400 m² in the first, and 900 m² in the second survey. The trap checking and marking procedure, using individual codes, was done daily. Over 5,000 spiders were marked in the two surveys. The number of spiders caught varied greatly between days. The recapture rate was also variable, ranging between 5-19%. Recaptured animals moved considerable daily distances, marked animals left the area of the trapping grid within a few days. Population sizes were estimated for 3 day time windows during which period the population could be considered closed. Spider densities were calculated from the estimated abundances and the capture area, which consisted of the grid area plus a boundary strip calculated from the estimated movement ranges of spiders. The resulting densities were close to 2 males and 1 female per m² in the first, and 4.5 males and 4.5 females per m² in the second experimental site. Suction sampling caught very few adult individuals and gave unsatisfactory data for statistical comparison. Live catching pitfall trap catches did not correlate with the derived mark-recapture density estimates across the short time windows, but for the entire trapping sessions the catches were consistent with the density estimates.

The capacity of the green lacewing Chrysoperla rufilabris (Burmeister) to modify its oviposition strategy in response to extraguild prey availability in an oviposition site was studied. Gravid females were placed in presence and absence of aphids. Fecundity, fertility, dispersion and hatching synchrony were compared. Results indicate a statistical difference in the hatching synchrony of eggs. However, no statistical differences were observed in the proportion of infertile eggs and in egg dispersion. We suggest that C. rufilabris can alter hatching synchrony of eggs in condition of food scarcity in order to favour intra-clutch egg cannibalism by newly hatched larvae and thus increase its overall reproductive success.

Salt D.T. & Whittaker J.B.: Insects on Dock Plants. Naturalists' Handbooks 26. The Richmond Publishing, Slough, 1998, 56 pp.

In the laboratory, not all females of the seed bug Lygaeus simulans Deckert, 1985, produced fertilized eggs after copulation: 26.7% of the females were not inseminated and 5% were inseminated but did not lay fertilized eggs; only in 40% of the couples did copulation result in fertile eggs. The remaining 28.3% of couples refrained from mating. Duration of copulation was associated with insemination and fertilization: (i) fertile eggs were produced by only one couple that copulated for less than 60 min and all those that copulated for more than 360 min, (ii) probability of fertilization increased steadily with duration of copulation between 60 and 360 min, and (iii) duration of copulation was significantly different for couples that showed different insemination status.
A possible morphological explanation for this rime dependency was revealed by examining the genitalia of 69 couples freeze-fixed in copula after different periods in copulation. Because of the intricate structure of the genitalia in L. simulans, a male takes a long time to manoeuver its intromittent organ into the narrow insemination duct of the female. Only if completely inserted is the tip of the intromittent organ close enough for successful ejaculation of sperm into the spermatheca. The freeze-fixing experiment revealed that it usually took the male more than 30 min to locate the entrance to the insemination duct and another 30 min for full penetration. This explains why copulations that lasted less than 60 min failed, since insemination began only after intromission was complete.
The experiments, therefore, indicated that there is a relationship between the complex morphology of the genitalia and the low rates of insemination and fertilization in L. simulans.

On the basis of a twenty-year investigation, the life-cycle of Torymus cyanimus Boheman (Hymenoptera: Torymidae), a hyperparasitoid of a gall-forming fly in the Volga-Kama region is described. This parasitoid is the top-consumer in a food chain on Cirsium setosum (Willdenow) Iljin, in which the herbivore is Urophora cardui L. (Diptera: Tephritidae) and the primary parasitoids belong to the genus Eurytoma (Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae). Mating and oviposition behaviour were studied, and the superparasitism and larval cannibalism investigated in the second parasitoid generation. The superparasitism in T. cyanimus evolved in connection with the ovipositor elongation, leading to eggs being laid later when the fly host has already been completely consumed by larvae of Eurytoma serratulae F. Hyperparasitism and larval cannibalism in the second generation of T. cyanimus might account for the evolution of hyperparasitism in this species.

This paper describes the first-instar larva of Geocharidius Jeannel, a species from Mexico, which is the second record of an Anillina (Coleoptera: Carabidae: Trechitae) larva; previously described was a species of the European genus Typhlocharis. Larvae of these two genera share ten synapomorphic characters, which support the monophyletic origin of Anillina. Sister-group relationships of Anillina with Tachyina + Xystosomina are proposed on the basis of three shared larval synapomorphies: seta LA5 of ligula absent; coronal suture in first-instar larvae very short or absent; second- third-instar larvae have none or one secondary seta on lateral sides of stipes and labium and none on mandibles.

Although some parts of diapause development have been clarified up by endocrinologists, knowledge of the underlying processes remains insufficient. The survey of ecophysiological aspects of diapause development has thus to be limited to inputs and outputs from the blackbox. The terms diapause development, diapause intensity, post-diapause quiescence, horotelic processes of diapause, and tachytelic processes of diapause (reactivation) are defined. Andrewartha's term diapause development has been accepted because it shows diapause as a dynamic event.
In about the last 20 years, some views on diapause development have been updated, while others have fossilised. The assumption that chilling is a general prerequisite for completion of diapause development in all insects still survives in part of the scientific community, in spite of much contradictory evidence and often due to inadequate interpretation of experiments (examples given in figures and tables). On the contrary, it has been generally recognised that in temperate climates overwintering diapause is usually already completed in early/mid winter and the dormancy is then temperature quiescence. The conception of multiple pathways of diapause completion postulates that diapause can be completed either by the normal (slow) progress of diapause development (horotelic processes), or by a faster activation (tachytelic processes). There are important differences between the mechanisms regulating activation and the horotelic processes. Thus, e.g., the photoperiodic response is lost during horotelic completion, while after photoperiodic activation it persists. In addition to photoperiodic activation other kinds of activation are being studied, particularly activation by high temperature.
Some conclusions can be made from modern studies on diapause development. In every individual, several (at least two) possible pathways exist that are evidently interlinked and mutually complementary. Thus the time of diapause passed at any condition has to be considered, as well as the exposure to very low temperatures. In temperature studies the experimental range ought to be adequately wide and less affected by a priori assumptions. Stimulation by temperature increase or improvement in food or other conditions has to be considered.
The success of diapause completion should be measured by at least four parameters: (1) incidence (%) of developmental steps; (2) duration of delay; (3) synchronization; (4) vigour of post-diapause insects (shown by long-term survival or fecundity). The last two parameters have usually been neglected.

Field observations in different habitats on the island of Iriomote (Yaeyama, Ryukyu, Japan) were carried out concerning their importance as perching sites of robber flies (Diptera, Asilidae), including the specialization of different species to varying microhabitats. Factors of mutual exclusion for the different species include spatial (horizontal and vertical), seasonal and behavioural factors. Some geographically widespread species prefer open areas, commonly used for agriculture, but endemic species are localized in the tropical forests of the lowlands, and afford that area the need for special protection.

The plant vigour hypothesis (PVH) predicts that females of galling insects preferentially oviposit on the most vigorous plants or plant modules, where their offspring's performance is highest. In the years 1995 to 1998, we evaluated the responses of species of two different guilds, two chewing species, Pantomorus sp. and Naupactus lar (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and one galling species, Contarinia sp. (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), to the length of shoots that were assumed to show the vigour of the tropical shrub Bauhinia brevipes (Leguminosae). The abundance of the chewing herbivores was not influenced by shoot length, since attack rates were randomly distributed among shoot length classes. The abundance of Contarinia galls increased with increasing shoot length, as proposed by the PVH. However, when we related the attack rate to unit length of shoot (cm), which denotes the resource availability per unit length, there was no effect of shoot length on Contarinia sp. These data corroborate the idea of a continuum of responses to plant quality, even when different herbivores feed on the same host plant.

The aphid parasitoid Aphidius ervi was collected and subsequently reared on Sitobion avenae on wheat or Acyrthosiphon pisum on alfalfa. Parasitoids from both origins were exposed in an olfactometer to alfalfa or wheat volatiles after plant experience (wheat or alfalfa) or after oviposition experience (S. avenae on wheat or A. pisum on alfalfa). The results showed the importance of adult experience, conditioning and innate preferences on the responses of A. ervi toward volatiles and provided a mechanistic explanation to the high prevalence of A. ervi on aphids on cereals and legumes in central Chile.

Four case studies are used to examine the relationships of water, ice nucleators and desiccation in the cold survival of invertebrates and the viability of frozen plant material: the freeze intolerant Antarctic springtail Cryptopygus antarcticus (Willem) (Collembola, Isotomidae), the freeze tolerant larvae of the fly Heleomyza borealis Boh. (Diptera: Heleomyzidae), the freeze intolerant Arctic springtail Onychiurus arcticus (Tullberg) (Collembola, Onychiuridae) and meristems of the currant Ribes ciliatum Humb. & Bonpl.(Grossulariaceae) from Mexico. Prevention of ice nucleation, lowering the water content by removal of osmotically active (freezable) water are critical features of the different cold survival strategies of the three species of invertebrates. In C. antarcticus, which desiccates rapidly by losing water via the cuticle to the atmosphere, the number of ice nucleators (and their activity) increases with lowered ambient temperature. During prolonged cold exposure ice nucleators are masked, but re-activated rapidly by water uptake in this species. Larval H. borealis do not readily desiccate and conserve their body water, 20-25% of it being bound (osmotically inactive). Experiments showed that a high proportion (c. 80%) of slowly cooled larvae survived exposure to -60°C. By comparison O. arcticus is able to sustain up to 40% loss of its body water and desiccation lowers its supercooling point to promote over winter survival. Dehydration leading to partial vitrification of currant (R. ciliatum) meristems improves their viability after cryopreservation in liquid nitrogen. From this comparison of four biological systems, it is concluded that the role of water and its activity at sub-zero temperatures are fundamental to the survival of freezing conditions by all the species studied. Although similar features exist in the four systems, no common basic mechanism was found.

The impact of the arrival of the exotic coccinellid Harmonia axyridis on the biological control and dispersion of apple mites and aphids, and on the vertical distribution of the established coccinellids Coccinella septempunctata and Coleomegilla maculata have been studied. Assemblages of adults of the three coccinellid species were tested on apple saplings and on apple trees against Aphis citricola and Tetranychus urticae. The presence or substitution of adults of H. axyridis for adults of C. maculata or C. septempunctata did not reduce the predation impact on mite or aphid prey. H. axyridis was a more efficient predator of mites than was C. septempunctata and generated lower prey dispersal from host plants. Substitutions of adults of H. axyridis for those of C. maculata, and in some cases of C. septempunctata, resulted in greater reduction in number of aphids. On apple trees, the three coccinellid species occurred at different heights. Neither C. maculata nor C. septempunctata modified their vertical distribution on apple tree over a 24 hour period in response to the presence of H. axyridis.

Larvae of Rhipsideigma raffrayi are described in detail and those of Distocupes varians are re-examined. Their morphological structures are evaluated with respect to their functional and phylogenetic significance. Larvae of Rhipsideigma are wood-borers with a straight body and a wedge-shaped head capsule. Most of their apomorphic features are correlated with their xylobiontic habits. The strong mandibles, the sclerotized ligula and the wedge-shaped head enable the larvae to penetrate rotting wood. The broadened prothorax, prosternal asperities, tergal ampullae, the short legs, and eversible lobes of segment IX play an important role in locomotion in galleries within rotting wood. Leg muscles are weakly developed, whereas the dorsal, pleural and ventral musculature is complex. The larval features allow Rhipsideigma to be placed in the clades Archostemata, Cupedidae + Micromalthidae, Cupedidae, Cupedidae excl. Priacma, and Cupedidae excl. Priacma and Distocupes. The monophyly of Cupedidae and Cupedidae, excluding Priacma, so far is only supported by apomorphies of the adults. However, the presence of glabrous patches on the prosternum and of a medially divided field of asperities may be larval apomorphies of the family. A clade, which comprises Rhipsideigma, Tenomerga and probably other genera of Cupedidae with hitherto unknown larvae, is well supported by larval apomorphies such as the broadened prothorax, the presence of coxal asperities and the presence of a distinct lateral longitudinal bulge. Increased numbers of antennomeres and labial palpomeres are apomorphies only found in larvae of Distocupes.

The larval morphology of the western Palaearctic zygaenid species Aglaope infausta (Linnaeus, 1767) is described and figured in detail. Unlike other members of the zygaenid subfamily Chalcosiinae, the last instar larva of A. infausta has numerous secondary setae and a multitude of cuticular cavities that are devoid of openings. The other chalcosiine genera have primary setae and cuticular cavities with specialized openings through which a defensive secretion can be discharged. Imaginal characters, on the other hand, provide strong evidence for placing Aglaope in the Chalcosiinae.

Two new species (Hemiptera, Fulgoromorpha, Cixiidae) included in a new genus, Meenocixius gen. n., and associated with Acanthophœnix rubra (Bory) H. Wendl. (Arecaceae) are described from the island of La Réunion: M. bebourensis sp. n. and M. virescens sp. n. This genus shows several autapomorphies in its tegmina venation, very particular within the Fulgoromorpha. Borbonomyndus gen. n., is proposed for another new species, B. pandanicola sp. n. associated with Pandanus purpurascens Thouars (Pandanaceae), and B. pallidus (Synave), previously described as a member of the genus Eumyndus Synave. According to morphological and ethological data, E. bistriatus is synonymized with B. pallidus, of which three different forms are recognized. All species of Borbonomyndus are found associated with Pandanus. These two new genera are endemic to La Réunion. Without taxonomic standing, the subspecies of Brixia belouvensis are synonymyzed and restricted to four different forms. A key is proposed for the Cixiidae of La Réunion, which now includes 12 species belonging to 6 different genera: Achaemenes, Aselgeoides, Brixia, Oliarus (but we show that the species placed in this genus need to be reviewed), Borbonomyndus, and Meenocixius. Monophyly of Eumyndus, from which E. perinetensis Synave is excluded, is substantiated. Following the new interpretation, this genus is now restricted to Madagascar. The species Cubana insularis Muir, from the island of Rodrigues, is transferred to a new genus: Achaebana gen. n. Finally, cixiid endemism and their host-plant associations in the Mascarenes are discussed.

The reproductive behaviour of a ladybeetle, Coccinella septempunctata was studied in detail. Males became sexually mature within 8.8 ± 0.3 days at 27°C, while females took 11.2 ± 0.4 days. Males exhibited courtship display in five steps: approach, watch, examine, mount and copulatory attempt. A prominent rejection display was shown by certain females who had not matured sexually, had recently mated or were about to oviposit. Males appeared to recognize females through chemical and some visual cues, such as size and body shape, with the chemical cues possibly playing a more significant role. Multiple matings took place within the same day. There was a gradual decrease with time in reproductive parametres, such as the duration of copulation, the number of copulatory bouts and the latent period from first to subsequent matings on the same day. The interval between mating bouts slightly increased from first to subsequent matings. The sexual status of males and females affected the duration of copulation, which was greatest in the case of unmated males and virgin females. Multiple matings increased the oviposition period, fecundity and percent hatching of eggs.