In the context of ongoing threats to forest ecosystems, this study investigates the temporal and spatial dynamics of Lymantria dispar defoliation intensity over a period of three years. We analysed the relationship between the insects' reproductive and feeding behaviours and forest stand characteristics, exploring the key factors that shape this behaviour. The results revealed a dynamic pattern, with a significant escalation of defoliation starting from the second year and peaking in the third. The analysis highlighted that, among several forest stand characteristics, woody species abundance and specific forest composition significantly influence population density and defoliation intensity. Sporadic outbreaks of the insects were associated with stand features, posing major challenges to forest health. These findings make a significant contribution to understanding the population dynamics of L. dispar and provide essential insights for forest managers in efficiently managing this defoliator. By highlighting the complex interactions between the insect and its environment, this study lays the groundwork for conservation and protection strategies for forest ecosystems.

A study on the pollination of Ophrys fuciflora (Orchidaceae), which is not a native orchid of Japan, was carried out in a botanical garden in Japan, where the flowers attracted the solitary bee, Eucera nipponensis. Six male bees were observed visiting the flowers over a period of 8 h. The pollinia of O. fuciflora became attached to these bees and four were successfully transferred to the stigmas of nearby flowers. The present study verifies that a species of Ophrys can attract pollinators in Japan, which is at least 8,700 km far from their natural habitat. Thus, it is likely that species of Ophrys could potentially extend their distribution by forming new alliances with other species of bees.

In the field of biodiversity research, tree-related microhabitats in the temperate zone have received substantial interest in the last decade, but one particular microhabitat type, crown microsoils in tree crotches, has largely escaped the attention of scientists. We present a study from Central Europe that focused on the meso- and macrofauna in this microhabitat type. In twelve crotches we found more than 3000 individual animals out of 14 orders, encompassing all major elements of the terrestrial soil decomposer food web. Collembola accounted for more than 50% of the total. As expected, taxon richness correlated with habitat size. We conclude that this is an ideal natural system to study fundamental ecological questions of faunal community assembly.

Parasitoids of different species frequently develop in the same host, a phenomenon referred to as "multiparasitism". Although the outcomes of multiparasitism have been well-documented in the literature, the underlying mechanisms, particularly the substances injected by a female parasitoid along with her egg(s) into a host during parasitism, remain relatively unexplored. Previous work on parasitoids associated with the cabbage white butterfly, Pieris brassicae (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) has shown that the larva of the solitary parasitoid Hyposoter ebeninus (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) has a higher survival but a longer development time when competing with the gregarious parasitoid Cotesia glomerata (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). In this study, we hypothesize that the maternal factors injected by C. glomerata are responsible for the effect on the performance of H. ebeninus larvae. This hypothesis was tested using P. brassicae caterpillars first parasitized with H. ebeninus and then injected with C. glomerata maternal factors, or parasitized by both parasitoids. Our results suggest that C. glomerata maternal factors are at least partially responsible for the reduction in H. ebeninus developmental mortality (likely through effects on the immune response of the host caterpillar), but does not seem to affect its development time. We discuss these results and the current knowledge of maternal-factor-mediated parasitoid interactions.

Spodoptera littoralis (Boisduval) is a highly destructive and polyphagous insect pest of great economic importance. It develops throughout the year and the larvae are non-diapausing. Little work has been done on the time taken for food to pass through the gut of S. littoralis. Thus, this study on starving and well fed last instar larvae of S. littoralis aimed to determine the effect of temperature and photoperiod on the time taken for a meal to pass through the gut, defecation and digestion. The results indicate that it depended on temperature, photoperiod and hunger. The time that elapsed between a larva being fed and the production of the first faecal pellet, which is a measure of the time it takes for food pass to pass through the gut (SFP), differed significantly at different temperatures and photoperiods. The SFP was longer at 15°C than at 30°C. At 20°C and under a short photoperiod, SFP was very much shorter than under a long photoperiod (18L : 6D). In addition, at 20°C, the time to defecation was significantly longer under a photoperiod of 12L : 12D than under continuous light. In all the tests > 95% of the larvae produced four faecal pellets per meal. The digestibility values varied significantly in the different tests. This study offers new insights into the passage of food from the crop to the rectum at different temperatures and photoperiods. This might help in understanding the adaptability of S. littoralis and may also help in controlling this important pest.

Chemical defence in insects is an increasingly popular subject of research and has the potential for providing unexplored compounds with unknown properties for drug and repellent discovery, so the secretions of various species of insects are currently being studied, and new ways of collecting these secretions are being sought. Silica gel and activated carbon were used as absorbents to collect the sprayed defensive secretion of Eurycantha calcarata. Using gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry, 49 compounds were identified, including 19 carboxylic acids, nine esters, ten alcohols, five hydrocarbons, and other organic compounds. The most abundant two compounds from each group were: hexadecanoic acid, octadecanoic acid, 9-hexadecenoic acid octadecyl ester, hexadecanoic acid tetradecyl ester, octacosanol, triacontanol, tridecane, and tetradecane. Silica gel turned out to be a better absorbent because it captured more compounds than the activated carbon. The mass of the absorbent did not affect the quality of the analyses. This paper is the first describing the volatile secretions emitted by phasmid representatives that originate from abdominal structures rather than the glands on prothorax. The presented results of the analyses and the known properties of the detected compounds give grounds for the conclusion that these secretions are of importance for defence in this species of phasmid.

The true bug Oxycarenus lavaterae has spread northwards through Europe from the Mediterranean at the beginning of the 21st century. Temperature and photoperiod in particular countries are important for the prediction of further spread. The timing and conditions for the termination of winter diapause in Bulgarian and Czech populations of O. lavaterae were determined. The progress in diapause development in the Bulgarian population was monitored by changes in the duration of the pre-oviposition period under long day (18L : 6D) conditions, which decreased gradually from October to June from 98 to 10 days at 20°C and 62 to 9 days at 25°C. There was no change in the photoperiodic response around the winter solstice in December/January, as is recorded for many other temperate insects. Instead, most overwintering females of O. lavaterae transferred to the diapause-promoting short-day photoperiod (12L : 12D) at 25°C did not start to oviposit even though they lived up to one year. The percentage of females that oviposited under short day conditions gradually increased from December to May, but only reached approximately 50% at most. In the Czech Republic, the number of individuals observed resting in overwintering aggregations on tree trunks gradually decreased up to early June. This bug seems remain in diapause until lime trees flower and their seeds become available.

The multicoloured Asian ladybeetle, Harmonia axyridis (Pallas), is a widespread invasive ladybird. It is considered a top predator among the aphidophagous coccinellids in North America and Europe; thus, it is supposed to be free from predation pressure by other members of the guild. Our study aims to evaluate the stage-specific vulnerability of H. axyridis to intraguild predation (IGP) by the indigenous Coleomegilla maculata lengi Timberlake and the invasive Propylea quatuordecimpunctata Linnaeus. We hypothesised that (1) H. axyridis stages will be less susceptible to IGP than the two other species, (2) vulnerability to IGP will decrease with the age of the larvae and (3) vulnerability to IGP will increase with increased weight difference between intraguild predator (IGPredator) and intraguild prey (IGPrey). Eggs, 1^st and 2^nd instars of H. axyridis were susceptible to IGP by both C. maculata and P. quatuordecimpunctata adults and larvae, but less vulnerable than the other beetles when facing the same IGPredator. Vulnerability to IGP for the three species was reduced with increased age of larvae and with decreased weight difference. Overall, H. axyridis was less vulnerable to IGP than the two other species, but the results confirm the fact that the status of IGPrey or IGPredator of H. axyridis will be determined by the stages of both species during the interactions.

In this paper data on the number of follicles in testes and the number of ovarioles in ovaries of planthoppers (Hemiptera: Fulgoromorpha) are summarised and discussed. Fulgoromorpha include about 14,000 described species belonging to 21 families distributed throughout the world. The number of follicles is known for 186 species, 123 genera and 17 families, and the number of ovarioles is known for 52 species, 44 genera and 11 families. Almost 80% of the species studied belong to the families Dictyophar­idae, Delphacidae, Issidae, Cixiidae and Achilidae. The number of follicles per testis and ovarioles per ovary varies within similar ranges, from 2 to 30 and from 3 to just over 30, respectively. The predominant number of follicles is 6, which is found in more than one third of the species and in almost all of the families studied. This number is considered as an ancestral trait for Fulgoromorpha. In each family, the ancestral number can vary both upwards or downwards, probably due to either polymerization or oligomerization. In the more basal families, a decreasing trend clearly predominates, whereas an increasing trend predominates in the more advanced families. As for the numbers of ovarioles, they tend to vary within families, with rare exceptions (e.g., Dictyopharidae), but that is probably due to the lack of data.

Spodoptera frugiperda, a worldwide pest, can feed on 353 crops species, including corn, rice, and sorghum. It is highly adaptable to various environments. Heat shock protein 90 kDa (Hsp90) plays a crucial role in the environmental adaptation of insects. To explore the role of SfHsp90 genes coding for Hsp90 proteins in the high temperature and insecticides stress resistance of Spodoptera frugiperda, we identified the complete complementary DNA sequences of two SfHsp90s. Both of them were expressed at different developmental stages and tissues in S. frugiperda. The expression levels of the SfHsp90s were significantly upregulated when exposed to durations of extreme temperature (45°C) and lethal concentrations of emamectin benzoate (LC₁₀ and LC₂₀). The viability of S. frugiperda under 45°C and emamectin benzoate stresses was examined. The mortality rate of S. frugiperda was significantly increased when subjected to 45°C and emamectin benzoate after knockdown of SfHsp90s by RNAi. These results suggest that SfHsp90s are essential for the resistance of S. frugiperda to high temperature and emamectin benzoate stresses.

Species of springtails (Collembola) have a stratified distribution along the soil/air profile and present an opportunity to study adaptive traits relating to a gradient of fluctuating humidity. The habitat of eu-edaphic species (found in deeper litter and soil layers) secures a relatively stable humidity, whereas hemi-edaphic (found in upper litter layers) and epigeic springtails (found on soil surface or vegetation) can experience an increased range of moisture fluctuation with much more rapid shifts between extremes. We hypothesized that the capacity for acclimation to drought conditions is better developed in species associated with the soil surface than in soil-dwelling species. To test this hypothesis, we measured the osmotic response of two epigeic, two hemi-edaphic and three eu-edaphic species to mild drought acclimation (3 d at -1.5 MPa; the average wilting point of plants) and compared the drought tolerance of drought acclimated animals with controls. Epigeic species had no or very little osmotic regulation during mild drought acclimation and unexpectedly became less tolerant to subsequent acute drought stress than controls. The hemi-edaphic and eu-edaphic species significantly increased body fluid osmolality in response to mild drought acclimation. However, none of these species became more drought-tolerant after exposure to mild drought. In conclusion, we found that the osmotic response to drought acclimation was indeed related to the vertical position of a species in the soil/air profile, however, the relationship was opposite to our hypothesis.

The tiger-fly Coenosia attenuata Stein (Diptera: Muscidae) is a predator that is currently thought to be a useful biological control agent in greenhouses, especially in the Mediterranean region. Here, we present a method for rearing this predator in the laboratory by feeding it on fungus gnats (fed on Pleurotus ostreatus fungus) and drosophilids (Diptera). Over the past two years, this method has been continuously used to successfully produce predators for bioecological studies in the laboratory. Rearing cages with one, five or 10 male-female pairs, either of laboratory or field origin, were compared using females that were either unmated and recently emerged, or mated and about 20 days old (post-emergence). We evaluated the following parameters: number of rearing cages in which adults emerged, number and sex ratio of emerged adults, period from the introduction of parental pairs into cages and the emergence of the first offspring adults, and the period over which emergence occurred in the cages. Based on our results and in order to minimize the space needed for the colony, cages should be stocked with ca. 10 parental pairs, either of field or laboratory origin, with at least some mated females about 20 days post emergence. We also found that the predator's rearing substrate in the cages is improved if coconut fibre is mixed with the soil. These findings will improve the efficiency of C. attenuata rearing, an important step if it is to be used as a biological control agent.

This study aimed to determine the diversity of species of predators attacking scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccidae) in Serbia. Over a four-year period, at 25 locations and on 25 host plants infested with 16 species of Coccidae, a total of 18,050 predators were collected and reared. Among them, were 16 species belonging to 7 families and 5 insect orders (Coleoptera, Dermaptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, and Neuroptera). Six species, Harmonia axyridis, Hippodamia variegata, Propylea quatuordecimpunctata, Forficula auricularia, Deraeocoris ruber and Oxycarenus lavaterae, were recorded for the first time feeding on coccid pests in Serbia and O. lavaterae was first recorded being zoophagous. The most common species was Exochomus quadripustulatus, which was recorded feeding on all 16 species of soft scale insects, while the dominant species was Anthribus nebulosus, with a total of 17,385 individuals collected and reared on five species of soft scale. Considering the potential of the predators as biocontrol agents for suppressing scale insects, the data obtained indicate the need to understand predator diversity, which is one of the prerequisites for using these predators for controlling coccid pests.

The two-spot ladybird, Adalia bipunctata, is polymorphic for elytral colour pattern. Whilst colour pattern polymorphism is complex, there are two predominant morphs: melanic and typical, which vary spatially in frequency. In the UK the melanic form has historically been most common in the industrialized North West of England. Evidence from industrial midland populations showed a decline in melanic frequency between 1960 and 1986 concordant with de-industrialization. We resampled the population of Merseyside in the North West of England, where the highest frequencies of melanic forms were historically observed, and compared our samples to data previously collected in 1962-1963. Data was consistent with a decline in frequency of melanics in the 60 year interval, but the melanic form was nevertheless still observed at around 30% frequency. We estimate the melanic allele has declined from 60-67% frequency to 13-18% frequency over the last 60 years, and that selection favouring the typical form has been of the order of 5-7% per generation. We note that selection against melanics in Wirral/Merseyside has been less strong than that observed in other Northern populations. We conclude that the decline in the melanic form is consistent with industrial thermal melanism as a primary factor driving melanism, but de-industrialization has not been sufficient to cause complete loss of the melanic allele in this location.

The field cricket, Scapsipedus icipe Hugel and Tanga (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) is edible and could be used to reduce malnutrition in Sub-Saharan Africa. As the demand for cricket products is increasing, there is a need to find cost-effective ways of rearing this cricket using locally available and affordable sources of food. This study evaluated the feeding preferences of the field cricket S. icipe for 11 species of dayflowers (Commelina spp.; Commelinaceae), using no-choice and multiple-choice experiments in controlled environments. Leaf feeding rates and the nutrient content and phytochemicals of the plants were determined. The ANOVA results indicate significantly higher feeding rates when offered Commelina petersii and C. forskaolii, than Commelina sp. and C. purpurea in no-choice experiments. Multiple-choice experiments ranked C. petersii as the most preferred species followed by C. forskaolii and the two reference species, C. benghalensis var. benghalensis (non-hybrid variant) and C. benghalensis (hybrid variant). The Spearman correlation and PCA revealed positive significant associations between leaf feeding and Ca and NDF content of leaves and a negative significant association between Ca and NDF. A high Ca/low NDF content was recorded for C. petersii and a low Ca/high NDF content for C. purpurea. The beta regression analysis and a biplot identified six phytochemical constituents influencing leaf feeding: phenols, alkaloids, tannins, glycosides, saponins and anthraquinones. Phenols stimulate feeding by S. icipe on C. petersii and C. forskaolii, whereas the tannins and alkaloids in Commelina sp. and C. purpurea, acted as deterrents. Nutrient content and phytochemicals are two important factors determining the suitability of species of Commelina for the field cricket S. icipe. Based on the results of this study, the leaves of C. petersii are highly recommended as a source of food for the mass rearing of this field cricket (S. icipe) and boosting entomophagy in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Ultraviolet B (UV-B) is a significant environmental factor affecting insect development, survival, and reproduction. DNAJ proteins are molecular chaperones found ubiquitously in insects that are crucial for their adaptation to environmental stresses. This study aimed to elucidate the roles of DNAJ genes in the response of Myzus persicae to UV-B stress. Herein, we identified six DNAJ genes in the aphid M. persicae, a devastating agricultural pest. We analyzed their expression profiles at different stages of development, in different tissues and for various durations of UV-B exposure. The expression levels of MpDNAJC30, MpDNAJC11, MpDNAJC2, and MpDNAJC3 were highest in wingless adults, while MpDNAJC9 and MpDNAJC17 were highest in second- and third-instar nymphs, respectively. Six MpDNAJs had higher expression levels in the epidermis and embryos, and lower levels in the head. Additionally, the expression levels of all genes increased significantly under different durations of UV-B exposure. Knockout of the DNAJ genes using RNA interference caused a significant decline in the survival rate, weight, body length, and body width of M. persicae exposed to UV-B radiation. Our research provides valuable insights into the stress response mechanisms of M. persicae, highlighting the importance of DNAJ genes in mediating their adaptation to UV-B stress.

We describe a new and unusual myrmecophilous behaviour displayed by the darkling beetle, Scaurus uncinus (Forster, 1771) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), accessing nests of the harvester ant, Messor barbarus (Linnaeus, 1767) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), in southeast Spain. The beetles enter the interior of the ant nests using a relatively primitive strategy based only on brute force, which we name "brute force entries". To understand the significance of this behaviour, we have studied the interactions of these two species in the field and in the laboratory during six years. Our observations confirm that specimens of S. uncinus expend a considerable effort to enter the ant nests, despite the ants fiercely attacking them, to the extent that the beetles lose legs and antennae through the process. We describe and discuss this behaviour, and identify hypotheses about its development and significance.

Diachasmimorpha longicaudata is the most widely used endoparasitoid in biocontrol programmes against various species of tephritids and is continuously mass-reared under laboratory conditions at a constant temperature; however, little is known about how varying the temperature might affect the effectiveness of the mass rearing of immature D. longicaudata. This study aimed to determine the optimum temperature for the development of larvae D. longicaudata the larvae of its host, Bactrocera dorsalis. Third-instar B. dorsalis were exposed for 4 h to five pairs of parasitoids, and then they were kept at one of six temperatures ranging from 19°C to 34°C. The activities of three major antioxidant enzymes (CAT, POX, SOD) were individually measured 4, 24, 48 and 72 h after exposure to each of the six temperatures. The results were as follows: for CAT the highest CAT activities were recorded at 25°C (intervals 5-24 h and 25-48 h), at 28°C (interval 0-4 h) and at 31°C (interval 49-72 h), and for POX and SOD identically at 25°C (intervals 0-4 h, 5-24 h) and at 31°C (intervals 25-48 h, 49-72 h), respectively. Subsequently, the effects keeping the parasitized larvae at these different temperatures on the biological attributes of D. longicaudata reared under laboratory conditions were investigated. The percentage of their eggs that hatched, percentage of adults that emerged, pupal weight and longevity were significantly greater than that recorded for the control when the parasitized host larvae were kept at 28°C for 4 h, 25°C for 5 and 48 h and 31°C for 49 and 72 h.

The cucumber moth, Diaphania indica (Saunders) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), is a major pest of cucurbitaceous plants. The oviposition preference and olfactory response of larvae, mated and unmated male and female adults to volatiles emanating from uninfested and infested plants of four species of cucurbitaceous host plants and odours of conspecifics were recorded. Also the role of experience in the host finding behaviour of D. indica was evaluated. The experiments were done using a wind tunnel, olfactometer attraction assays and oviposition bioassays. The results reveal that fewer eggs were laid on infested plants than on uninfested plants. Females significantly preferred cucumber over squash, melon and watermelon. Cucurbitaceous plants elicited adults of D. indica to fly upwind followed by landing on the plants. The effect of experience on the olfactory preference of D. indica was dependent on the host plant. Females that had experience of cucumber, squash and melon plants were significantly attracted to the same plant, but not in the case of watermelon. Larvae of this pest were attracted only to volatiles of uninfested cucumber, squash and melon, whereas volatiles of conspecifics, infested plants and intact watermelon did not attract larvae. This study is an initial attempt to investigate the role of volatile infochemicals in the host-finding behaviour of D. indica. These results provide baseline information for the development of new control strategies against D. indica.

Eggs of the migratory locust, Locusta migratoria (Orthoptera: Acrididae), hatch synchronously when in a pod, but only sporadically when kept separately. Here, we aimed to detect the vibrational stimuli emitted by eggs that initiate synchronous hatching. First, we recorded the vibrations emitted by an egg pod and single eggs. One bout of vibrations consisted of 2 to 46 vibrations. The total number and amplitude of vibrations in single eggs increased as the time to hatch decreased. Eggs kept separately were continuously subjected during the last 2 days before hatching to recordings of vibrations from a single egg. Recordings made during the last 2.5 h before hatching caused these eggs to hatch significantly earlier than those not subjected to this treatment, the control. In contrast, eggs subjected to recordings made 8 to 10 h before hatching significantly delayed their hatching relative to the controls, which indicates that synchronous hatching of eggs is induced by age-dependent changes in vibrations from neighbouring eggs. Exposure to one large bout of vibrations (consisting of 40 vibrations in 101 s) was sufficient to induce synchronous hatching in eggs kept separately when applied 5 h before hatching, but not 36 or 11.5 h before hatching. Visual inspection of the spectra indicated that the vibrations had two peaks at about 100 Hz and 1.5 kHz. Only exposure to the latter altered the hatching time of eggs. The embryo moved the posterior part of its abdomen when emitting the vibrations. These results indicate that the synchronous hatching of locust eggs is induced when the embryos emit particular vibrations.

Functional responses at each developmental stage of predators and intraspecific competition associated with direct interactions among them provide insights into developing biological control strategies for pests. The functional responses of Harmonia axyridis (Pallas) at each developmental stage of Melanaphis sacchari (Zehntner) and intraspecific competition among predators were evaluated under laboratory conditions. The results showed that all stages of H. axyridis displayed a type II functional response to M. sacchari. Based on Holling's disc equation, the instantaneous searching rates were highest (a) and handling time was shortest (T_h) of fourth instar larvae (a = 0.8818; T_h = 3.9 min) and female adults (a = 0.9881; T_h = 3.0 min) at larval and adult stages, respectively. The coefficients of mutual interference (m) assessed by the intraspecific competition equation were higher for fourth instar larvae (m = 0.4764) and female adults (m = 0.4183). The present study indicates that fourth instar and female adult were more effective stages of H. axyridis in the context of biological control but suitable predator densities need to be considered before natural enemy release.

Coccinellids are effective predators and a key component of the predator guild in rice ecosystems. In order to enhance their efficacy, a study was undertaken to assess the seasonal movement of coccinellids into rice fields and the role of the surrounding flora on their colonization. The seasonal abundance of coccinellids and their prey was recorded on the rice crop and the surrounding flora at fortnightly intervals from 2012 to 2015. Coccinellid prey range was assessed using PAGE electrophoresis. The herbivorous insects associated with weeds were Aphis gossypii Glover, Aphis craccivora (Koch), Cicadulina bipunctata (Melichar), Schizaphis graminum (Rondani), Sitobion sp., Thaia oryzivora Ghauri and Zygina maculifrons Matsumura. Of the species of coccinellids recorded in rice fields, Harmonia octomaculata (Fabricius), Micraspis discolor (F.), Propylea dissecta (Mulsant), Coccinella transversalis Fabricius, Cheilomenes sexmaculata (Fabricius), Scymnus nubilus Mulsant and Brumoides suturalis (Fabricius) were also recorded on weeds. The esterase profiles indicated that the leafhoppers and aphids on the weeds were the prey of the coccinellids before they colonized the rice fields. The coccinellids recorded on the weeds showed bands corresponding to the insects present on the weeds. Beetles collected from rice fields had different bands, some of which corresponded to the green leafhopper (GLH) Nephotettix virescens Distant, the brown planthopper (BPH) Nilaparvata lugens Stal and white backed planthopper (WBPH) Sogatella furcifera Hovarth infesting rice. In addition, some bands corresponded to hoppers and aphids that were present on the surrounding flora. The results indicate the importance of surrounding flora in the conservation and colonization of rice fields by coccinellids.

The insect growth regulator NC-184, a juvenile hormone mimic, prevents moulting to the adult stage in the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria (Forskål) (Orthoptera: Acrididae). Male nymphs treated in the penultimate or final nymphal instar with NC-184 exhibit precocious mating behaviour in the final instar. We examined whether this chemical affects the development of the internal reproductive organs of crowded nymphs. In treated males, both accessory glands and seminal vesicles were underdeveloped, and no sperm was found in the seminal vesicle, whereas these organs in control individuals had greatly increased in size 10 days after treatment, when all the insects had moulted to adults. Testis size in treated males was similar to that in controls, regardless of their smaller body size due to the inhibition of moulting. Oogenesis and development of spermatheca in females treated with NC-184 continued to some degree, but no eggs matured, unlike what occurred in the control. In conclusion, treatment of S. gregaria nymphs with NC-184 resulted in changes in the reproductive organs in both sexes.

The rich diversity of information focusing on pupal diapause in the sarcophagids makes this fly family among the best-understood diapause models. This review summarizes the occurrence of pupal diapause in flesh flies from broad geographic regions of the world, as well as the apparent absence of diapause in select regions. The environmental cues used for programming diapause are discussed, as well as the requirements for breaking diapause. This taxon has been used for experiments ranging from the ecological to the molecular and offers a comprehensive overview of the diapause phenotype. A wide range of diapause attributes define the diapause phenotype of flesh flies, offering insights into such features as clock mechanisms, signaling pathways, maternal regulation, energy utilization, cell cycle regulation, metabolic depression, cyclic metabolic activity, cold tolerance, water balance, and other attributes, generating a diapause profile that offers an attractive comparison for diapause in other insect species as well as with other forms of animal dormancy.

Maps and models of the distributions of animals and plants are important for assessing their current and future status. Such models rely on information on the environment and occurrence of species. While data on the environment are often easily gathered that on the occurrence of species is often tedious and expensive to collect. An easy way to gather data on species occurrences is to use online platforms such as GBIF or iNaturalist, which rely on the public. This data can be used to produce maps and develop models of the distributions of various animals, such as ants. Even though there are a few in depth studies on the distributions of ant species, knowledge of the distribution and status of many species is lacking. One such species is the widespread ant Manica rubida, which is currently not included in the international Red List. Here, data on the occurrence of M. rubida recorded in online platforms, literature and collected during a field survey were used to develop a map of its distribution and a species model, in order to evaluate its current status. A total of 611 occurrences were found and indicate that this species mainly occurs in the European Alps and other Eurasian mountain ranges. Records of most occurrences were obtained from online platforms and the number increased significantly over the last two decades and indicate this species occurs over an altitudinal range of 3000 m. The species model revealed that there are potential areas of suitable habitat for M. rubida in the Pyrenees, European Uplands, Pindus Mountains, Balkan Mountains and Pontic mountains. Currently, M. rubida does not seem to be threatened by climate change, but it is recommended that the monitoring of its distribution should be continued. This study reveals that data from online platforms can provide the information necessary for developing species models, which can be used to assess the current status and estimate the potential effect of climate change on a species and plan conservation strategies.

Little is known about the life cycle of Rhembobius parasitoids (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae). Known host records are mainly from saprophagous species of hoverflies of the tribe Eristalini (Diptera: Syrphidae), whose larvae develop in a wide range of aquatic and semi-aquatic breeding sites that are rich in microbial decay. We present an account of the biology and important details of the life cycle of the pupal parasitoid R. quadrispinus in both natural and controlled conditions. Host suitability, the influence of host pupal age and age of the female parasitoid on her production of progeny was evaluated in laboratory tests. Our results showed that the percentage of pupae of E. tenax that were parasitized by R. quadrispinus decreased as pupae matured, and the optimal age for successful parasitism ranged from 1 to 3 days. This biological information could be useful in the biological control of anthropophilic saprophagous eristalines that can act as potential mechanical vectors of pathogens on farms.

This study explores the effect of nutritional composition on the fitness of consumers in a quadri-trophic food web. Specifically, we studied how enrichment of the food of fruit flies Drosophila melanogaster (Meigen, 1830) transfers to the spider Phylloneta impressa (L. Koch) (Theridiidae) and its parasitoid wasp, Zatypota percontatoria Mueller (Ichneumonidae). We reared fruit flies on balanced, protein-enriched, and lipid-enriched diets, and observed several fitness-related traits in both the predator and the parasitoid. In spiders, we did not find significant differences among treatments in their body size and the probability of building a cocoon web. In parasitoids, we failed to find significant differences among treatments in the time to wasp pupation, the duration of pupation, the length of the wasp tibia and pronotum, and the body mass. However, the sex ratio of hatched wasps differed significantly among treatments from the expected 1 : 1. In the balanced diet group, the majority of wasps were males. There was a significant positive relationship between the spider prosoma size and the length of the wasp fore wing. Our results suggest that the quality of the food of the primary consumer had little effect on the fitness of the organism at the fourth trophic level.

Populations of herbivorous insects are considered to be primarily regulated by natural enemies. However, little is known about the ecological role of entomopathogenic fungi. There is very little data on the diversity and prevalence of fungal pathogens in natural insect populations. In this study, the percentage mortality attributable to fungal pathogens for the immature stages of three noctuid moths feeding inside the stems of the herbaceous plant, Typha latifolia, were determined. The average percentage mortality caused by fungal pathogens was around 8%, with the value never exceeding 20% at any of the studied sites. As many as ten species of fungi were identified in the 52 infected larvae/pupae collected, this high diversity is consistent with the results of comparable studies. The prevalence of fungal infections did not correlate with host population density or performance of the host insects. This study contributes to the emerging generalisation that populations of insects commonly harbour diverse assemblages of pathogenic fungi, but with low overall prevalence. A significant contribution of these antagonists to regulating insect populations is unlikely.

Spruce forests face many threats such as climate change and bark beetle outbreaks. Yet, bark beetle dynamics have a long co-evolutionary history strongly linked to spruce forest structural dynamics. Disturbed spruce forest sites resulting from bark beetle outbreaks therefore should not be regarded as degraded land, but as early successional stages following natural forest dynamics. Three post-bark-beetle disturbance sites and one closed-canopy site in the Bavarian Forest and Šumava National Parks were investigated with the focus on moth communities. The three disturbed sites had undergone different post-disturbance management regimes, with one being treated by salvage logging, while at the other two forest sites deadwood was kept in the forest. To avoid the spread of bark beetles, however, the bark of dead trees was either gouged or removed. The aim was to determine how many moths can be found at the undisturbed and disturbed forest sites and if differences in community composition can be explained by different management regimes. The results highlight that natural forest disturbance can increase moth diversity, especially by favouring species that are associated with open and shrub habitats. Many rare and endangered species benefit from bark beetle outbreaks, indicating that accepting natural forest dynamics is an important part of conservation management. Post-bark beetle management seems to have a minor effect on moth communities.

The proteome profiles of the cuticle and haemolymph of two strains of the Chinese Oak silk moth A. pernyi, with cyan and yellow coloured bodies, were compared in order to identify the differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) that determine the differences in the colouration of the two strains. A total of 324 DEPs, including 124 up-regulated and 200 down-regulated proteins, were identified in the cuticles of the cyan and yellow coloured individuals, and 286 DEPs including 79 up-regulated and 207 down-regulated proteins in the haemolymph of the cyan and yellow coloured individuals. Several DEPs associated with the colour of larvae of A. pernyi were screened, including an ommochrome-binding protein, juvenile hormone esterase, protein yellow, L-dopachrome tautomerase yellow-f2 and fumarylacetoacetase, the expression levels in the cuticle and haemolymph of the yellow larvae were higher than those in the cyan coloured larvae, indicating their possible roles underlying the colouration of the yellow larvae of A. pernyi.