Carabid beetles could potentially provide a number of ecosystem services in arable fields, including the regulation of weeds by eating seeds. Spatio-temporal variability in the incidence of predation combined with a limited understanding of the interactions between carabids and seed predation, currently limits our ability to assess the effectiveness of this service. We carried out a long-term field study of carabid communities and the incidence of predation of the seeds of 5 species of weeds and laboratory cafeteria choice-tests to quantify the preferences of the most abundant species of seed-eating carabid for the seeds of 10 species of weeds. The field study revealed important temporal variation both in carabid activity-density and seed predation, with the seed of Viola arvensis and Capsella bursa-pastoris being particularly preferred by the carabids. The laboratory cafeteria tests confirmed the predation preferences measured in the field, in showing strong preferences by both Pterostichus melanarius and Pseudoophonus rufipes for the seed of V. arvensis. The percentage predation of the seed of V. arvensis was associated with the activity-density of carabids, while that of the seed of C. bursa-pastoris was not. Integrating laboratory-measured daily consumption rates, per carabid taxa, into models improved the ability to predict the intensity of predation of the seed of V. arvensis based on the composition of carabid communities.

A new non-native species of sawfly Nematus lipovskyi Smith, 1974, previously known only in the USA, has heavily infested the ornamental azalea plant, Rhododendron molle, in the Czech Republic since at least 2010. The data on this species in the USA is briefly summarized. The larva and hitherto unknown male are newly described and illustrated. The life cycle is described based on field observations and the rearing of larvae collected in Charles University Botanic Garden in Prague. The host plants are listed and include the first record of a European species of azalea (Rhododendron luteum). The current distribution of Nematus lipovskyi in the Czech Republic based on the results of a preliminary monitoring project carried out by Charles University in Prague and the State Phytosanitary Administration is presented. The pathways of its introduction and spread, potential phytosanitary measures and its effect on the environment are briefly discussed.

In the present study, the predatory interactions between two locally abundant large lady beetles, Coccinella septempunctata L. (C7) and Coccinella transversalis F. (Ct) provided with either an extremely scarce, scarce, sub-optimal, optimal or abundant supply of the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris) were investigated. For this, three 2-predator combinations (conspecific C7 + C7 and Ct + Ct, and heterospecific C7 + Ct) of 10-day-old unmated adult females were used. The relationships between the proportion of prey consumed by the predators in the conspecific and heterospecific combinations when provided with five different abundances of prey were similar in consisting of a decelerating (type II) functional response when provided with an extremely scarce to optimal supply of prey, followed by an accelerating (type III) functional response when provided with an optimal to abundant supply of prey. It is likely that the modified type II functional response recorded in the present study was a consequence of using a small experimental arena (Petri dish). The multiplicative risk model analysis revealed that the predators interacted antagonistically except in the C7 + C7 combination provided with an extremely scarce supply of prey where the predators had an additive effect. The predators in the heterospecific C7 + Ct combination consumed fewer aphids when provided with an extremely scarce, scarce, sub-optimal or optimal supply of prey prey than the predators in conspecific C7 + C7 combination but a similarly high number when provided with an abundant supply of prey. In addition, the efficiency of converting prey biomass into their own biomass was higher in the heterospecific C7 + Ct than in the conspecific C7 + C7 or Ct + Ct combinations at all prey densities. Although the conversion efficiency of the predators in the conspecific and heterospecific combinations provided with an extremely scarce supply of prey was the highest recorded, their growth rate was the lowest. In contrast, both the conversion efficiency and growth rate of the predators in the three combinations were highest when provided with an abundant supply of prey. It may, therefore, be concluded that when the predators in the combinations occupy similar ecological niches, they will probably consume less prey than they require when prey is both scarce and abundant because the predators interact antagonistically.

Polyamines are nitrogenous compounds that alter the odour sensitivity of insects. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of polyamines on the expression levels of olfactory-related genes in male/female adult diamondback moths, Plutella xylostella. Results indicate that treatment with polyamines or α-difluoromethyl-ornithine (DFMO), a polyamine synthesis inhibitor, significantly affected the expression of various olfactory related genes. Although DFMO had no significant effect on the expression of PxylPBP1, it did significantly decrease the expression of other olfactory related genes (PxylGOBP1, PxylGOBP2 and PxylCSP1) in a gender-related fashion that correlated with the mating status of the adults. Polyamines [spermine (spm), putrescine (put) and spermidine (spd)] decreased the expression of PxylGOBP2 in naive male moths, but increased the expression of the same gene in virgin female moths. In addition, put treatment significantly increased the expression of PxylGOBP1 in virgin females and unmated male moths, but significantly decreased its expression in mated female and male moths. Based on these results we conclude that polyamines have a regulatory role in the expression of olfactory related genes and that these effects depend on the gene, gender and mating status of diamondback moths. These results indicate that polyamines affect the expression of the genes in insects that determine their olfactory ability.

Erebia euryale (Esper, 1805) is a montane-zone representative of a Holarctic butterfly genus the species of which occur mainly in alpine areas. As in many mountain insects, E. euryale frequently undergoes a prolonged biennial larval development, which can be synchronised across mountains, resulting in prominent biennial peaks in adult emergence. However, the extant reports are often contradictory, suggesting that populations are not synchronized. We present the first quantitative assessment of the situation in the Czech Republic, based on five years of monitoring adults along transects in three major mountain systems in this country. We detected a two order magnitude difference in biennial fluctuations in adult abundance, with peaks in even years (i.e. 2010, 2012) in the Šumava Mts (southwest Czech Republic). There were less distinct odd year (i.e. 2009, 2011, 2013) peaks in the Hrubý Jeseník Mts (northeast) and no fluctuations from year to year in the number of adults recorded in the Krkonoše Mts (north). Although the mechanisms behind these patterns remain unknown, we hypothesize that rugged terrain desynchronises and flat terrain synchronises the length of development of E. euryale. Finally, the different periodicity in the fluctuations in individual mountain ranges is hypothesized to be affected by interactions with larval parasitoids or reflect the different postglacial histories of respective populations.

A review of the Balkan representatives of the genus Psorodonotus was made with the aim of revealing the relationships between taxa and their systematic arrangement. For this purpose we used morphological (qualitative and quantitavive), acoustic (amplitude-temporal song parameters) and molecular (mtDNA COI gene sequence) data. The analyses and comparisons with other taxa of Psorodonotus support the distinction of three species occurring on the Balkan Peninsula: P. fieberi, P. illyricus and P. macedonicus. Analysis of the COI sequences suggested the following relationships: outgroups + (P. illyricus + (P. fieberi + (P. macedonicus + P. caucasicus))). All available information on the distribution of the Balkan taxa was synthesized and mapped.

Soil cultivation is among the principal factors that determine the structure and properties of soil and also affects the species composition and abundance of soil dwelling arthropods. Carabid beetles are a particularly valuable group of arthropods, the species of which are strongly associated with particular soil environments. This paper discusses the effect of soil tillage on carabid beetle assemblages. The study was carried out near Olsztyn, in northeastern Poland. Six wheat fields, each cultivated using either, conventional or non-inversion, soil tillage, were chosen. Carabid beetles were caught in Barber s traps from early April to the end of October 2011. In total, 7,486 specimens belonging to 55 species of the family Carabidae were captured. The most numerous were Poecilus cupreus, Pterostichus melanarius, Harpalus rufipes, Anchomenus dorsalis and Carabus granulatus. Differences in the abundance of ground beetles and some life history traits were associated with the two soil tillage systems. In particular, ploughing reduced carabid abundance and resulted in the increased activity of medium-sized zoophages and spring breeders.

Facultative parthenogenesis is important for mayflies with short alate stages because females are able to reproduce without mating. We studied facultative parthenogenesis in Ephoron eophilum, a mayfly with an extremely short alate stage. We examined the survival rates of embryos from unfertilized eggs, in addition to investigating the number of chromosomes in parthenogenetic offspring and the mode of inheritance by nuclear genetic analyses using Exon-Primed Intron-Crossing markers. The survival rate of thelytokous embryos was 0-70.2% (16.7 ± 26.7%, mean ± S.D.). Sixteen chromosomes were present throughout most of the mitotic metaphase in parthenogenetic offspring, which was similar to the number recorded in diploid females. All parthenogenetic offspring were homozygous in nuclear genetic analyses, despite the presence of heterozygous mothers. These results indicate that E. eophilum has the ability to reproduce via facultative parthenogenesis, producing mostly diploid thelytokous offspring. The restoration of ploidy level occurs by automixis via terminal fusion or gamete duplication, and causes rapid reduction of heterozygosity. However, despite this, significant deviation from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (HWE) was not observed in the studied populations. This is because facultative parthenogenesis in these circumstances normally has little influence on population genetic structuring, even though parthenogenetic embryos exhibit a high survival rate. The lack of influence of parthenogenesis on the population structure of the natural population strongly suggests that parthenogenesis rarely occurs under natural circumstances.

Military training areas are increasingly recognized as areas of high biodiversity and habitats for many wild organisms, including threatened or endangered species. However, the information on the ecological value of military training areas is limited because it is difficult access these sites. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of military activity on butterfly communities. The survey was carried out in a military training area (MTA) at Inje-gun near the demilitarized zone (DMZ), Inje forest (IJF) a secondary forest and Gwangneung forest (GWF) an old growth forest, from April to October 2008 to 2011. IJF and GWF were selected in order to determine the characteristics of a butterfly community differed in a MTA. Butterfly communities differ greatly among sites. Estimated species richness and species diversity were significantly higher in MTA compared to GWF. Grassland species were abundant in MTA and forest interior species in GWF. Species richness and abundance of red listed species, especially grassland species, were greatest in MTA, but absent in GWF. Military activities were beneficial for red listed grassland species because they maintained an open habitat, which is rare elsewhere in current Korea. This study indicates that MTAs are important in terms of conservation and in providing a refuge for red listed grassland species.

The community of predators within agroecosystems has the potential to restrict aphid populations, especially early in the season before exponential increases in density and prior to the arrival of specialist natural enemies. Although direct observations of predation, laboratory feeding trials and manipulative field studies have been used to estimate levels of biological control exerted by different species (or potentially negative interactions between them), it is often difficult to extrapolate results to naturally occurring interactions in the field.
Over 100 investigations have utilized gut-content analysis to estimate aphid predation rates by predators. Throughout the last century, gut dissection, which enables the visual identification of aphid body parts, has been used in over 50% of studies although accurate identification and quantification of predation is difficult. Other techniques have included radio-labelling of prey, dissection of faecal samples, electrophoresis, stable isotope analysis and use of polyclonal antisera. In recent studies of invertebrate predation, monoclonal antibodies have been the most frequently applied technique but advances in molecular biology have enabled the detection of species-specific DNA sequences. The use of these applications to quantify predation by aphidophagous predators will be reviewed, with emphasis on potential sources of error and difficulties of quantitative interpretation. Despite the considerable focus currently directed towards molecular approaches, antibody-based techniques are likely to remain an important tool for studying predation rates of pests in the field, especially when antibodies have already been developed. However, the study of multiple predation events within complex generalist predator food webs is only likely through the detection of species-specific DNA sequences using molecular techniques.

This paper reports the results of a comparative study of the demographic parameters of two phenotypes of Harmonia axyridis Pallas, reared on the black bean aphid, Aphis fabae Scopoli at 25 ± 1°C, 65 ± 2% RH and a photoperiod of 16L : 8D. The values of the intrinsic rate of increase and the finite rate of increase, which were obtained by bootstrapping, were greater for the succinea morph (0.182 females/female/d and 1.200, respectively) than the spectabilis morph (0.168 females/female/d and 1.183, respectively). The net reproductive rates and mean generation times of the two morphs did not differ. The risk of death of the succinea morph was significantly greater. However, there was no significant difference between the estimated survival times. Mean survival times were 95.2 d and 89.3 d for the spectabilis and succinea morphs, respectively.

Environmental factors that regulate egg diapause in the walking-stick insect, Ramulus irregulariterdentatus, were studied. Insects collected in fields at Okayama, Japan soon after hatching in spring were reared under constant laboratory conditions. After adult emergence, their eggs were placed outdoors or incubated under constant laboratory conditions. Most eggs kept at 15 or 20°C hatched more than 100 days after oviposition. At 25°C, however, many eggs remained in diapause throughout the experimental period although a small number hatched slightly earlier than those kept at the lower temperature. The maternal photoperiod affected the egg period at 20 and 25°C; eggs from females reared under short day conditions hatched significantly earlier. A low temperature of 10°C shortens diapause development, whereas 5°C did not have a clear effect on time to hatching. When eggs of females reared under long day conditions were placed outdoors from June to early July, most hatched the next spring. On the other hand, eggs of females reared under short day conditions hatched before winter if they were laid before mid-July. The short day eggs laid in August and September hatched successfully the following April, and there was a positive correlation between the date of oviposition and time of hatching. It is concluded that low temperatures in mid-winter do not terminate diapause development. The results revealed that both maternal regulation of diapause intensity and the rate of diapause development play an important role in maintaining a monovoltine life cycle in Ramulus irregulariterdentatus.

The patterns of seasonal activity, sex and age structure, reproductive characteristics and overwintering distribution of Amara fulva were studied in the southwest forest zone of the East European plain. A total of 1212 adults (664 males and 548 females) and 38 larvae were collected using pitfall traps. All adults were dissected to determine their reproductive condition. 185 larvae and 5 adults were collected by sampling soil. Adults of A. fulva were active from the first half of June until October with a single peak of activity in August. From June only postgenerative and newly emerged beetles were caught in traps. Immature and mature adults were recorded from the second half of July. At the end of August, more than 90% of the population was represented made up of mature adults. Immature individuals were trapped up until October after which they overwintered. Oviposition period lasted 11 weeks (from the mid-July to the end of September). Maximum number of mature eggs in ovaries was recorded in the second half of August. Larvae of A. fulva were caught from the second half of August to October and the peak in their subsoil activity was recorded in the first half of September. The life cycle of A. fulva is described as facultatively-biennial. Overwintering larvae and adults occurred in different parts of the floodplain. Larvae preferred to overwinter in soil under Persicaria maculosa near the edge of a river, while adults overwintered far from water and, rarely under tussock grasses on sandbars. The larvae of A. fulva cache the seeds of P. maculosa. Rearing A. fulva under field conditions revealed that this species takes 254-328 days complete its development, which includes the winter period.

The delimitation of two ichneumonid species, Spilopteron apicale (Matsumura) and S. tosaense (Uchida), was investigated using DNA sequences of the mitochondrial COI and nuclear 28S rRNA genes, as well as adult morphology. The two species have long been confused and were until recently speculated to be the same species with continuous colour variation. Our molecular and morphological studies reveal that there are two distinct species: a dark species confined to northern or high latitude localities (S. apicale) and a widely distributed species with a marked geographical gradient in body colour (S. tosaense) across the Japanese Archipelago. In the latter species, female body colour became significantly darker with latitude and altitude. A lectotype of Chorischizus apicalis Matsumura, 1912 is designated.

Tuta absoluta (Meyrick, 1917) is the main pest of tomato crops in South America. Recently, it was also reported in several countries in Europe and the Middle East. Because of its invasive potential and the lack of information on the biology of T. absoluta, the present study aimed to estimate its thermal requirements and evaluate the effect of temperature on its development, survival, reproduction and longevity. The experiments were carried out at constant temperatures of 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30°C. T. absoluta completed its development at all these temperatures. The thermal requirements were estimated by linear regression; the insects required 416.7 degree-days to complete the cycle from egg to adult, and the lower temperature threshold was estimated to be 8.0°C. The upper temperature threshold estimated for the egg-adult cycle was 37.3°C. The pre-oviposition period was longer at 10°C, but the oviposition period was similar at all the temperatures tested. Fecundity was highest at 20 and 25°C, with averages of 134.8 and 149.1 eggs per female, respectively. The highest percentages of fertile eggs were recorded at 15, 20 and 25°C. At 10 and 30°C, only one egg clutch was laid by T. absoluta. No differences were recorded in the longevity of females and males of T. absoluta. The tomato leaf miner can develop over a wide range of temperatures; however, its reproduction and survival were negatively affected at the extreme constant temperatures tested. The temperature variation recorded in natural environments is suitable for this pest to infest tomato crops.

Poor synchronisation is considered to be one important reason for the ineffective control of the invasive horse chestnut leafminer by native parasitic Hymenoptera. Parasitoids hibernating in dry horse chestnut leaves break diapause early in spring and presumably leave the vicinity, since no hosts are available when they emerge. As a consequence, the percentage parasitism of the first generation of the leafminer in early summer is low. The experiments presented below were designed to test this hypothesis. Horse chestnut saplings were brought on in a greenhouse and infested artificially with C. ohridella prior to parasitoid emergence in the field. These saplings were then exposed to parasitoid attack under natural conditions to eliminate the synchronisation problem. In addition, the parasitoid complexes of other leafmining hosts, which appear early in the season, were analysed. The results confirm that the most important parasitoids of the horse chestnut leafminer are active early in the season, long before the larvae of the first generation of the host are present. Nevertheless, poor synchronisation with the invasive host did not significantly influence the abundance of the most important parasitoid in the complex, Minotetrastichus frontalis, and consequently had no impact on the parasitism of C. ohridella. Nevertheless, a detailed analysis of the parasitoid community shows that certain species are affected by poor synchronisation, while others are probably limited by ecological parameters, such as a specialisation to foraging in particular strata of vegetation. Several leafmining flies were found early in spring infesting other host plants commonly planted in urban green areas, including species with a parasitoid complex similar to that of C. ohridella. The role of these alternative hosts in the food web associated with the horse chestnut leafminer should be subject to further study.

Tracking the larval development of an insect is important in both applied and basic ecology. Yet, it is difficult to discriminate between the different larval instars of holometabolous insect species, particularly in the field. The methods currently available are of limited use as they rely on an a priori determined size distribution of every immature instar and are irrelevant whenever the distributions of two instars actually overlap. We developed a model that computes, for a given species, the most probable instar of a larva based on its individual head capsule width and the size distribution of the last larval instar. The model presented here is specifically for species of curculionid that develop through four immature instars, but can be adapted for species of weevil with a different number of instars or insects of other taxonomic units. Our method computes the risk error associated with assigning a larva to any of the possible instars and might not assign a larva if its size falls within the overlapping zone of the size distributions of two successive instars. Thus, this parsimonious method might be widely used, notably for wild-caught larvae, and can be readily used thanks to the R package CINID that we developed for that purpose.

In insects, the crustacean cardioactive peptide (CCAP) is involved mainly in the regulation of ecdysis and is both a hormone secreted into the haemolymph and a neuromodulator or neurotransmitter in the nervous system. However, this peptide has only been recorded in the brains of a few species of insects. The present study examined the distribution of CCAP in the cephalic ganglia of the cockroach, Periplaneta americana, using two kinds of specific antibodies. The antibody directed against synthetic CCAP detected a large number of CCAP-immunoreactive neurons in the protocerebrum, deutocerebrum, tritocerebrum, suboesophageal ganglion, optic lobes, frontal ganglion and neurohemal organs, while the antibody directed against CCAP precursor (pre-propeptide) stained only a few neurons within the central brain and frontal ganglion. The latter antibody also revealed similar sets of neurons in another species of cockroach, Gromphadorhina portentosa, and identified the CCAP precursor of approximately 15 kDa in size in Western blot analyses.

Emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis, is a destructive invasive forest pest in North America and European Russia. This pest species is rapidly spreading in European Russia and is likely to arrive in other countries soon. The aim is to analyze the ecological consequences of the establishment of this pest in European Russia and investigate (1) what other xylophagous beetles develop on trees affected by A. planipennis, (2) how common is the parasitoid of the emerald ash borer Spathius polonicus (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Doryctinae) and what is the level of parasitism by this species, and (3) how susceptible is the native European ash species Fraxinus excelsior to A. planipennis. A survey of approximately 1000 Fraxinus pennsylvanica trees damaged by A. planipennis in 13 localities has shown that Hylesinus varius (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae), Tetrops starkii (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) and Agrilus convexicollis (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) were common on these trees. Spathius polonicus is frequently recorded. About 50 percent of late instar larvae of A. planipennis sampled were parasitized by S. polonicus. Maps of the distributions of T. starkii, A. convexicollis and S. polonicus before and after the establishment of A. planipennis in European Russia were compiled. It is hypothesized that these species, which are native to the West Palaearctic, spread into central European Russia after A. planipennis became established there. Current observations confirm those of previous authors that native European ash Fraxinus excelsior is susceptible to A. planipennis, increasing the threat posed by this pest. The establishment of A. planipennis has resulted in a cascade of ecological effects, such as outbreaks of other xylophagous beetles in A. planipennis-infested trees. It is likely that the propagation of S. polonicus will reduce the incidence of outbreaks of A. planipennis.

Since the publication of papers by Polis et al. (1989, 1992), intraguild predation (IGP) has been considered in numerous systems and a growing number of papers have been published, demonstrating the ubiquity and the importance of this interaction. It appears that aphidophagous guilds constitute especially favourable systems for IGP. Temporal and spatial distributions of aphids promote interactions, such as IGP, among natural enemies. However, despite extensive laboratory and field studies, several questions remain to be answered: Which traits of the different protagonists of the system may promote or hamper the occurrence of IGP? How do ants tending aphids modulate the interaction? How should one consider the "sub-lethal" effects (and the defensive mechanisms) associated with the risk of IGP? May IGP disrupt or enhance aphid control? These different issues are discussed by focusing on the predatory species in the complex system of aphidophagous guilds. It appears that, first, IGP may constitute one of the main forces influencing the structure and dynamics of aphidophagous guilds, and therefore it has to be taken into account in research studies, and second, because of the ephemeral nature of aphid colonies and the great number of species belonging to aphidophagous guilds, understanding all the implications of the interaction, both direct and indirect, constitutes a very complex task.

Many species of lady beetles are highly promiscuous and females mate repeatedly even when not sperm-limited. We quantified female reproductive success and progeny development in Hippodamia convergens using a laboratory experiment designed to test whether (1) male novelty (different males), (2) male mating status (virgin, non-virgin) or (3) opportunities for female mate choice, would increase female fitness compared to a similar number of matings with the same male. Daily access to novel males, regardless of their mating status, increased the egg fertility of females, but not their fecundity. Opportunities for mate choice did not improve any measure of female reproductive success compared to arbitrary assignment of males, but slightly increased reproductive rate, as measured by the number of days to produce 15 clutches. The eggs of monogamous females had the fastest eclosion times, but larval development was fastest for progeny of females polyandrous with non-virgin males, and total developmental time did not differ among treatments. In a second experiment, confinement with two males during oviposition disrupted egg clustering and reduced egg fertility, but not female fecundity, relative to confinement with one male or oviposition in solitude, suggesting a negative impact of male harassment on female fitness in the presence of multiple males. However, the continued presence of two males also improved progeny survival and reduced progeny development time relative to female confinement with one, likely due to summation of paternal effects when females were allowed unlimited matings with both males. These results do not rule out genetic benefits of polyandry, but support the view that enhanced egg fertility is a primary benefit, and suggest more subtle benefits may be obtained in the form of additive paternal effects. The average number of female matings in nature may even exceed that required to obtain such benefits if females use "convenience polyandry" to diminish male harassment.

Predatory carabid beetles are important for regulating prey abundance in terrestrial ecosystems. While surveys of carabid diet have revealed many insights into trophic interactions, the high species diversity and heterogeneous developmental stages of prey identified in the gut have made further advances difficult. In addition, the carabid gut contains partially digested and mainly soft tissue parts of the prey species, difficult to identify by traditional methods. Molecular gut content analysis (MGCA) avoids these disadvantages but to date has been limited primarily to revealing pest species in agricultural fields. Here we used MGCA to screen for the presence of Lepidoptera in carabid guts, in woodland ecosystems, in both Croatia and the UK. Data on carabids positive for Lepidoptera were compared with those from previous work on the same carabid assemblages, screened for earthworms, slugs, woodlice and springtails. In both locations, the prey group most frequently detected was earthworms, followed by slugs and Lepidoptera and then finally by woodlice and springtails. The composition of the diet changed with season, carabid sex, and carabid size. In both locations, Lepidoptera were the third most frequent prey, with 27% of carabids testing positive in Croatia and 20% in UK, suggesting that carabids could be significant predators of Lepidoptera in woodland ecosystems and may potentially play an important role in controlling moth pests.

The ultrastructural and biochemical characteristics were studied in active and diapausing pupae of the horse chestnut leaf miner, Cameraria ohridella, collected in summer. The active pupae contained developing internal organs, while those in diapause mostly numerous non-differentiated cells packed with stored nutrients. These nutrients occurred in vacuoles as liquid material (lipids, proteins) or as reserve crystaloids (proteins). Triacylglycerols (TGs) were the main lipids stored by pupae and were more abundant in diapausing than active pupae. The amount of diacyglycerols (DGs) and phospholipids (PLs) was almost identical in both groups, which reflects the roles of these compounds in lipid transport and structure of cell membranes, respectively. A principal component analysis (PCA) indicated differences in the quality of the lipid compounds in both groups and that the TGs were mostly responsible for the difference. Polyunsaturated linolenic acid (18 : 3) was the most abundant fatty acid in both active and diapausing pupae, nevertheless its content was significantly higher in the former; the level of 7 fatty acids reached values higher than 1%. Differences in other nutrients were similar to those of TGs; higher contents of both glycogen and proteins were recorded in diapausing than active pupae. The results revealed significant differences between the two summer pupal forms of C. ohridella and furthered our understanding of the developmental strategy of this successful, invasive pest insect.

Predator searching efficiency increases in response to a variety of environmental cues associated with its prey. The sugary excretion of aphids (honeydew) has been found to act as a prey-associated cue for many aphid natural enemies. In the present study, the honeydew excreted by Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris) was identified as an arrestant and a contact kairomone for young larvae and adults of a common predatory hoverfly, Episyrphus balteatus (De Geer) (Diptera: Syrphidae). First and second instar larvae increased their foraging behaviour in the honeydew-treated area. When plants were sprayed with crude honeydew, the speed of movement of female E. balteatus was significantly higher than in controls, resulting in a longer period of time spent on treated plants and laying eggs. We conclude that the honeydew excreted by A. pisum induces searching behaviour and acts as and arrestant not only for adults but also for young E. balteatus larvae.

Many territorial species of butterfly are sexually dimorphic in their wing colours, and males of such species frequently fight each other, probably attracted by the rival's wing colour. On the other hand, male behaviour should be directed to acquiring mates to increase their fitness, and thus should be sensitive to (usually cryptic) female wing colour. The present experiments aimed to determine whether the conspicuous male colour or cryptic female colour is more attractive to the territorial males of two lycaenid species, Chrysozephyrus smaragdinus and Neozephyrus japonicus. A pair of female and male wing models was presented simultaneously in the field to a male. The results indicate that the males of both species were preferentially attracted by the female wing model. In N. japonicus, in which the wing colour of females is polymorphic, males preferred particular types of female wings, in that they were more strongly attracted to the type-B model with a blue patch on the forewing than the type-O model, which lacked a blue patch.

Parasitic Hymenoptera usually need to have direct access to their host or its offspring or to be able to enter and place their offspring in a nest of their host, where their progeny develop at the expense of the host. In the case of the cleptoparasitic cuckoo wasps (Chrysididae) their main target is the nest of the host and they have various strategies for locating and entering their host's brood cells for ovipositing. The chrysidid Omalus biaccinctus (Buysson, 1893), a parasitoid of aphid hunting crabronid wasps, was observed apparently inserting its eggs into living aphids at the hunting site of their host and the presence of the parasitoid's egg and DNA in aphids after oviposition was confirmed. It is concluded that O. biaccinctus "hitch-hikes" into a host's brood cell concealed in the aphid prey collected by the host wasp and the adult parasites do not need to enter the nest of their host in order to lay their eggs.

The poplar lace bug, Monosteira unicostata (Mulsant & Rey), is one of the most important pests of almond trees in the Mediterranean area. The developmental times and survival of the immature stages of this tingid were determined at 16, 19, 22, 25, 28, 31, 34, 35.5, 37 and 39°C, 60 ± 10% relative humidity and under a 16L : 8D photoperiod. At 16 and 39°C, 100% mortality was recorded during immature development, with the egg, first and second nymphal instars the most susceptible. The lowest mortality was recorded at 28°C (9.8%). As temperature increased, the total developmental period decreased and the shortest duration was recorded at 34°C (12.1-12.2 d). At 37°C, the developmental time was slightly longer (12.5-13.0 d). The thermal requirement for complete development, from egg to adult, was 229.2 DD. Several non-linear models were fitted to the developmental rate data recorded for the range of temperatures tested. Selection criteria indicated that the Lactin model best described the relationship between developmental rate and temperature. It predicted lower and upper thermal thresholds for the complete preimaginal period of 14.8 and 39.1°C, respectively. Models were validated by comparing their predictions for the total preimaginal period with the developmental times recorded at three different fluctuating temperature regimes. The Lactin model again best fitted the actual durations recorded. This model could be used in IPM programs for predicting the moment of occurrence of the most damaging generations of this species.

We studied a population of the Red-winged grasshopper Oedipoda germanica, which is a highly stenotypic and endangered species in Central Europe. The locality studied is completely isolated and at the northern limit of this species distribution (north-west of the Czech Republic). We used capture-mark-recapture in 3 consecutive years (2008-2010). We estimated the total population size using POPAN software to be 136 adults in 2008, 70 in 2009 and 122 in 2010. Estimated daily survival rate (Ф) ranged from 0.950 to 0.987. We constructed linear mixed models to test for apparent survival in relation to temperature data. Temperatures (i.e. mean air temperature and maximum air temperature) were found to have significant effects on survival. The population studied is small, isolated and thus threatened by extinction, as are other O. germanica populations at the northern limit of their distribution. The preservation of indigenous populations in their localities can be achieved by active management, including the removal of shrubs and trees.

Amylase is one of three main enzymes involved in the breakdown and utilization of macromolecules. In honey bees (Apis mellifera), amylase was traditionally believed to originate only as secretion of the bee. However, other sources of amylase production, such as microbes in the guts of bees remained to be studied. In our research, we compared the differences in the amylase values in rape flower nectar and honey in the stomachs of bees. Then, culture-dependent and culture-independent (16sDNA) methods were used to isolate and identify bacteria in rape flower nectar and bee stomach honey. The dominant bacteria were added to nectar, and the amylase values of nectar with added gut microbes and nectar without added microbes were compared. Our findings indicate that the amylase value was significantly increased, which correlates with the increase in number of bacteria that occurred from nectar to honey in the stomachs of bees. The dominant bacteria in honey bee stomachs were mainly Bacillus during the flowering season of rape. Experiments confirmed that the amylase levels in nectar increased significantly when bacteria were added. These results indicate that bacteria in the foregut of bees help in the processing floral nectar into honey.

A nonnative pest of potato recently established and causing significant economic damage in Portugal and Spain was initially identified as Epitrix similaris Gentner and included on lists of quarantine pests. The identity of this pest was doubted by some experts, since E. similaris is a rare species previously recorded only from California and does not damage potato in its native range. Our comparison of 20 specimens of this pest from Portugal with paratypes of E. similaris has revealed that it is not E. similaris. The name "Epitrix similaris" should be removed from lists of quarantine pests. The damage to potato tubers caused by the larvae of this pest is similar to that of E. tuberis Gentner, but examination of paratypes of E. tuberis has revealed that the pest is not E. tuberis. This pest differs from all species of Epitrix recorded in the Holarctic and from all known Epitrix pests of potato in the world. Herewith it is described as a new species Epitrix papa sp. n., whose native range is unknown.