According to previous observations, it was hypothesized that the feeding behavior of some ant species would be deterred by a scavenger deterrent factor (SDF), whereas for other species it would not. The effects of the SDF were studied on 11 ant species in three different subfamilies: Dolichoderinae Forel, 1878, Formicinae Latreille, 1809, and Myrmicinae Lepeletier de Saint-Fargeau, 1835. The experiments were conducted from 2014-2015 in Davis, California, United States, Aydin, Turkey, and Duzce, Turkey. Five-day-old Heterorhabditis bacteriophora (Poinar, 1976), (Hb)-killed and freeze-killed Galleria mellonella (Linnaeus, 1758) were exposed to ant colonies in the field for 3 to 4 h. Seven ant species fed significantly less on Hb-killed insects than freeze-killed insect. On the other hand, there was no significant difference in cadaver consumption with five species, but Liometopum occidentale Emery, 1895 did consume a higher rate of Hb-killed insects than freeze-killed insects and was not deterred by SDF. It was also observed that four ant species took Hb-killed insects into the nests, but two Myrmicinae species, Pogonomyrmex subdentatus Mayr, 1870 and Messor meridionalis (André, 1883) removed the cadavers after 30 min, whereas two Formicinae species, Cataglyphis nodus (Brullé, 1833) and Formica fusca Linnaeus, 1758, retained the cadavers in the nest. It was assumed that the latter two species consumed both Hb-killed and freeze-killed insects. Further studies are needed to explain why L. occidentale C. nodus and F. fusca are not deterred by SDF.

The cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae), is a serious pest of citrus in northern Iran, both because of the damaged caused by its feeding and as a vector of several viruses. The genetic structure of populations of A. gossypii on citrus trees at eight localities in Iran was surveyed using seven polymorphic microsatellite loci. Of 240 individuals tested, 142 multilocus genotypes (MLGs) were identified. The presence of multicopy genotypes and negative F_IS values revealed that the major mode of reproduction in northern Iran is obligate parthenogenesis. The genotypic diversity of populations ranged between 0.24 and 0.93. Considerable genotypic diversity and a high frequency of unique MLGs, confirmed there is some cyclical parthenogenesis in the region. The analysis of molecular variance revealed high intrapopulation and weak interpopulation genetic differentiation (overall F_ST = 0.036) among the different populations. The UPGMA dendrogram of eight populations based on Nei's genetic distance indicated two clusters: genotypes from West of Mazandaran and Guilan provinces and those from East of Mazandaran. The same results were also obtained from the STRUCTURE analysis of these populations. This information on the genetic diversity of populations of A. gossypii in northern Iran could be useful for improving the Integrated Pest Management of this aphid.

Population fluctuations of the well-known oak defoliator, the oak processionary moth (Thaumetopoea processionea L.), were studied using light trap data and basic meteorological parameters (monthly average temperatures, and precipitation) at three locations in Western Hungary over a period of 15 years (1988-2012). The fluctuations in the numbers caught by the three traps were strongly synchronized. One possible explanation for this synchrony may be similar weather at the three trapping locations. Cyclic Reverse Moving Interval Techniques (CReMIT) were used to define the period of time in a year that most strongly influences the catches. For this period, we defined a species specific aridity index for Thaumetopoea processionea (THAU-index). This index explains 54.8-68.9% of the variation in the yearly catches, which indicates that aridity, particularly in the May-July period was the major determinant of population fluctuations. Our results predict an increasing future risk of Oak Processionary Moth (OPM) outbreaks and further spread if the frequency of severe spring/summer droughts increases with global warming.

Lygus lineolaris (Palisot de Beauvois, 1818) (tarnished plant bug) is a serious pest of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) in the Delta region as compared to cotton in the Hills region of the state of Mississippi in USA. The reason for this is unclear but it was hypothesized that the plant cell wall degrading polygalacturonase enzyme system in the salivary glands of L. lineolaris from the Delta could be better adapted for cotton, which is grown more predominantly in the Delta region than in the Hills region. Expression analysis of three primary polygalacturonase genes (LlPG1, LlPG2 and LlPG3) was conducted in laboratory reared and field collected populations of L. lineolaris. Assay of polygalacturonase enzyme activity was also conducted to compare wild collected populations. Initial laboratory and field data revealed gene expression differences in sex, age, region, and host plant which guided the direction of our subsequent study during 2013 and 2014. Based on the results of this study, we propose that the three genes studied may not be reflective of the entire polygalacturonase enzyme system and may not be solely responsible for the observed adaptation of L. lineolaris to cotton in the Delta region than in the Hills region. Analyses also revealed that the expression of the three targeted polygalacturonase genes was affected by the host plant from which the insects were collected and that adults had higher polygalacturonase expression than nymphs. Taken together, our results provide strong evidence for developmental stage specific and host plant based change in expression of PG genes in the salivary glands of L. lineolaris. This, however, was not reflected in total polygalacturonase enzyme activity which was not significantly different between regions, hosts, sex, or developmental stage.

Intracellular bacteria of the genus Wolbachia (α-Proteobacteria) are the most widespread endosymbionts of insects. Host infection is usually associated with alterations in reproduction, such as cytoplasmic incompatibility, the induction of parthenogenesis and offspring sex ratio bias: all phenomena that may influence host speciation. In the present study, by using well-established molecular tools, we investigated the presence of Wolbachia in leaf beetles of the genus Crioceris and their host plants, which are various species of Asparagus. Multilocus sequence typing of bacterial genes showed that despite their occurrence in the same habitat and feeding on the same plant, two species of Crioceris, C. quinquepunctata and C. quatuordecimpunctata, are infected by two different strains of Wolbachia. C. asparagi, C. paracenthesis and C. duodecimpunctata, which are sympatric with the infected species, do not harbour the bacterium. Interestingly, DNA of Wolbachia was detected in host plant tissues that are exploited by the beetles, providing evidence for the horizontal transmission of the bacterium between beetles and their host plants. Moreover, Wolbachia was detected in species of Crioceris that are not closely related.

Alien phytophagous insects are often introduced along with their host plants, creating opportunities for troublesome invasions. Yet, not all of them are able to successfully colonize novel host plants. In this study, we investigated host selection by the alien leaf miner Phyllonorycter leucographella (Zeller, 1850) on both its original host and novel host plants in the insect's alien range. We predicted that this insect's percentage infestation of the original host would be positively related to its specific leaf area (SLA), because high-SLA leaves are nutritious and have thin cuticles, traits related to high offspring developmental success. We further hypothesized that this host selection process would apply in the selection of novel host plants. Our results show that this leaf miner selects leaves of its original host plant, Pyracantha coccinea, according to their SLA values. The SLA value was also positively related to the probability of P. leucographella infesting and successfully developing on novel host plants. The selection of high-SLA plants by the moth leads to a high developmental success on novel host plants in the first (summer) generation, but it is likely to be maladaptive in the second (overwintering) generation, because in temperate Europe, high SLA values are associated with deciduous plants that shed their leaves in autumn. It is likely that the apparent maladaptive selection of novel host plants by P. leucographella reduces the invasiveness of this pest by preventing its establishment on native plants.

A two-year field experiment was conducted to determine whether a conservation biological control strategy could be applied to enhance the biological control of green apple aphids, Aphis spp., in a high-density and scab-resistant apple orchard at the non-bearing stage. The natural occurrence of aphid predators and their impact on aphid populations were evaluated in 2005. The impact of predation on aphid densities was evaluated by comparing a predator exclusion treatment with a control. In 2006, the possibility to enhance predator abundance/performance and aphid biological control with a flowering ground cover was tested: trees were grown either with a flowering ground cover of phacelia, Phacelia tanacetifolia Bentham, and buckwheat, Fagopyrum esculentum Moench, or with a conventional ground cover of mixed Poaceae species. In 2006, it was also determined whether aphid densities differ between Liberty and Topaz, 2 scab-resistant cultivars. Results indicate that the predatory arthropod community was dominated by Coccinellidae, Cecidomyiidae, and various spider species. The ladybird community was dominated by the exotic species Harmonia axyridis Pallas, and the abundance of this species was correlated with aphid density. Naturally occurring predators had little impact on aphid abundance, although the proportion of trees with aphid colonies was greater in the predator exclusion treatment on two consecutive dates in 2005. Ground cover types had no impact on aphid densities. The oviposition response of Cecidomyiidae to aphid density was greater in Liberty trees with flowering ground cover than with the conventional ground cover. Conversely, the response of ladybird adults to aphid density was more important in Topaz trees with the conventional ground cover than with the flowering ground cover. Finally, no difference occurred in aphid abundance between Liberty and Topaz trees. Those results are discussed from a biological control and ecological point of view.

Pitfall traps are widely used for sampling ground-dwelling arthropods. Their sampling efficiency is affected by several factors, e.g. material, size and modification of parts of the trap and sampling design. Pitfall trap sampling is also affected by the accumulation of plant litter in the traps, rain fall and by-catches of small vertebrates, which may cause a bias in the catch by obstructing traps or attracting certain insects. A roof that prevents rain and plant litter entering a trap, prevents dilution of the preservative and escape of arthropods. The main goal of present study was to compare the effect of four types of differently combined funnel and roof pitfall traps on the capture efficiency of epigeal arthropods. We found that a funnel and/or a roof had no effect on spider catches. Total abundance of large carabids and thus the total abundance of ground beetles was lower in funnel pitfall traps without a roof than in other types of traps. However, funnel pitfall traps with roofs collected significantly more carabid beetles, especially individuals of those species that are large or good fliers. We conclude that funnel pitfall traps with roofs have no negative effects on capture efficiency of ground beetles and spiders, therefore application of this sampling technique is strongly recommended.

Rove beetles (Staphylinidae) are used to explore the forces that shaped the terrestrial fauna on Læsø, a young ca. 3000 year old Danish oceanic island located in the Kattegat strait between mainland Denmark and Sweden. We compile a detailed list of species of rove beetles for Læsø (328 species) and the surrounding Danish and Swedish regions (altogether 1075 species), which includes a standardized inventory of their body sizes, and the habitat and microhabitat preference of each species. The composition of the fauna on Læsø and adjacent mainland regions points to North-Eastern Jutland as the main source of the rove beetles on Læsø. Although large beetles are more active and likely to disperse than small beetles, there is no bias towards large species on the island indicating that the sea separating Læsø from the mainland has not been a barrier for rove beetle dispersal. The statistical analysis of the habitat and microhabitat preferences of the species of the entire system studied has shown that Læsø, compared to the mainland areas, is distinctly more dominated by ecological generalists, especially by species adapted to ephemeral, temporary humid microhabitats. Presumably, the mosaic of mostly dry open habitats available on Læsø filters for species, that are able to populate these suboptimal habitats via patches of humid but ephemeral microhabitats. A comprehensive eco-faunistic dataset for the Staphylinidae compiled for this study is the first modern account of the rove beetle fauna on the Danish island of Læsø.

Many factors contribute to the 'invasive potential' of species or populations. It has been suggested that the rate of genetic evolution of a species and the amount of genetic diversity upon which selection can act may play a role in invasiveness. In this study, we examine whether invasive species have a higher relative pace of molecular evolution as compared with closely related non-invasive species, as well as examine the genetic diversity between invasive and closely related species. To do this, we used mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I sequences of 35 species with a European native range that are invasive in North America. Unique to molecular rate studies, we permuted across sequences when comparing each invasive species with its sister clade species, incorporating a range of recorded genetic variation within species using 405,765 total combinations of invasive, sister, and outgroup sequences. We observed no significant trend in relative molecular rates between invasive and non-invasive sister clade species, nor in intraspecific genetic diversity, suggesting that differences in invasive status between closely related lineages are not strongly determined by the relative overall pace of genetic evolution or molecular genetic diversity. We support previous observations of more often higher genetic diversity in native than invaded ranges using available data for this genetic region.

The emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis, native to Asia is a devastating pest of ash in North America and European Russia. There are several parasitoids of A. planipennis recorded in Asia and North America, but none previously in Europe and European Russia. Eighty two specimens of the ectoparasitoid Spathius polonicus Niezabitowski (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Doryctinae) (23 adults, 56 larvae and three pupae) were found in the remains of A. planipennis larvae at five localities in Moscow Province in October 2013 - May 2014. S. polonicus is rare but widely distributed and mainly a Western Palaearctic species. It seems that the level of parasitism could be relatively high: in nature, more than 50% of the last instar larvae of A. planipennis examined were killed by S. polonicus. We collected 24 live last instar larvae and prepupae and the remains of 30 last instar larvae of A. planipennis previously parasitized by S. polonicus. S. polonicus may be suitable for the biocontrol of A. planipennis both in Europe and North America, because it is a native of the temperate climate zone. The potential of this parasitoid for biological control needs special investigation.

Urbanisation results in a marked modification of habitats and influences several ecological processes, some of which give rise to beneficial ecological services. Natural pest control, the effect of predators on prey is one of such services. We quantified changes in the incidence of predation with increasing levels of urbanisation using artificial caterpillars made of green plasticine. Potential predators can be identified by the "attack marks" they leave on these artificial caterpillars. We conducted this study from May to October 2010 around the city of Sorø (Zealand, Denmark), in forests along an urbanisation gradient (rural-suburban-urban). Artificial caterpillars were placed on the ground in order to obtain an estimate of the incidence of predation at ground level. Half (50%) of the 1398 caterpillars were "attacked" and 28.8% of the bites were those of chewing insects. We attributed the majority of these to carabids, the most common group of ground-active arthropods. Chewing insects exerted the greatest predation pressure in the original forest (52.1%), with lower values recorded in the suburban (10.1%) and urban (16.4%) forest fragments. Ants were responsible for only 4.7% of the attacks in forest, 11.3% in suburban and 16.4% in urban forest fragments. Mammals exerted the highest predation pressure in suburban habitats (22.2% vs. 4.9% in forest, and 8.1% in urban forest fragments).

The maritime pine bast scale, Matsucoccus feytaudi Ducasse (Hemiptera: Matsucoccidae), occurs in the western part of the Mediterranean basin and is a sap sucking insect that feeds only on maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Aiton). It causes damage in SE France and Italy, where it was accidentally introduced. In Spain information is scarce and, moreover, almost nothing is known about the predators of this species. This study was designed to determine the seasonal trends in abundance of M. feytaudi and its major predators, which might help to improve the biological control of this pest in other areas. Natural P. pinaster stands in the Valencian Community (Spain) were surveyed in 2004. In addition, the seasonal trends in abundance of M. feytaudi and its natural enemies were monitored in three stands over a period of three years (2002, 2005 and 2006). The monitoring was carried by wrapping sticky tapes around tree trunks and using delta traps baited with sexual pheromone. The maritime pine bast scale was detected in all the stands surveyed. At almost all the sites surveyed, three species of predators were captured: Elatophilus nigricornis Zetterstedt (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae), Hemerobius stigma Stephens (Neuroptera: Hemerobiidae) and Malachiomimus pectinatus (Kiesenwetter) (Coleoptera: Malachiidae). The presence of M. pectinatus is noteworthy as this is the first record of this species as a possible predator of M. feytaudi. The results show that M. feytaudi, although differing in its phenology depending on the location, is univoltine in the study area. The prepupae, pupae and adults of M. feytaudi appeared between December and March in colder areas and between October and February in warmer areas. E. nigricornis nymphs are important predators of M. feytaudi, and were abundant when the scale insect (crawlers, prepupae, pupae, male and female adults) was present. The flight period of E. nigricornis and the hemerobiid H. stigma ranged from May to October. However, these flight patterns did not correlate with the presence of the different stages of the bast scale (crawlers, prepupae, pupae, male and female adults) on the surface of tree trunks. The presence of M. pectinatus in large numbers in some stands suggests it might be an important natural regulator, which helps to keep M. feytaudi populations at low densities in the areas of Spain studied. This malachiid shows a strong kairomonal attraction to the sexual pheromone of M. feytaudi and its flight activity is significantly correlated with the presence of crawlers of bast scale.

The aim of this research was to define the effect of the construction and renovation of a highway bypass around the town of Skępe on the environment and assemblages of carabid beetles. This four-year study was based on catching samples of beetles using pitfall traps. The traps were set first in 2008 and later from 2010 to 2012, after the renovation of the road, along roadside verges adjacent to two ca. 100-year-old pine forest stands, wet habitats and fallows of arable fields and inside these habitats about 25 m from the road (control plots). The carabids collected were identified to species and numbers of individuals and dominance values of each of the species were calculated for each study plot and each year. Furthermore, the dominance of the different species of plants was assessed. Numbers of species, numbers of individuals, percentage share of forest species and individuals, and Shannon diversity values of the carabid assemblages were analyzed. Multivariate statistical analyses (ordinations) were carried out using the dominance of the different species of carabids and using the ecological indicator values of plants as environmental factors. The construction of the bypass in 1987 resulted in more diversified carabid assemblages along the roadsides. Carabid fauna along the roadsides differed from that in the control plots in forests and in terms of some parameters from the control plots in wet habitats, but not statistical from the control plots in the fallow areas of arable fields. The renovation of the road 22 years after construction did not result in any significant changes in the characteristic parameters of the carabid assemblages along the roadsides, but gradient analysis indicated that it did have an effect. In terms of the environmental conditions of the habitats based on the plant associations occurring there the roadside habitats differed from the control plots in forests and wetlands. Since the number of sites studied is rather low, the results of this study have to be considered to be preliminary, but may provide research hypotheses for further research on highway roadsides.

There are approximately 1200 described species of Chrysopidae, many of which are predators of agricultural pests. Species of Chrysoperla are mass-produced and sold for use as biological control agents of agricultural pests in Europe, Asia, North and South America. Chrysoperla agilis, a member of the "carnea group" of Chrysoperla, has the potential to be biocontrol agent and is native to the Azores, and therefore a local candidate for use in IPM of pests, such as aphids and scale insects. Given that many adult Chrysopidae feed on pollen and honeydew and the biology of Ch. agilis is not well understood, we studied the preferences of Ch. agilis adults living in a greenhouse on the campus of the University of the Azores for feeding on different types of pollen. Twenty-six species of flowering plants, belonging to 16 families and 24 genera, all previously recorded on Sao Miguel Island, were found in the greenhouse. Pollen grains from each species were collected and incorporated in a reference catalogue. Additionally, 40 adults of Ch. agilis were collected (20 in December 2012 and 20 in January 2013) and the pollen in guts identified. Of the 26 species of plants in the greenhouse 14 were used as sources of pollen by the lacewings. Pollen of Plantago lanceolata L. was the most frequently recorded pollen in the gut contents. The adults of this chrysopid fed mainly on the pollen of species of plants belonging to the Asteraceae, Plantaginaceae and Poaceae. The species richness (S = 12), diversity index (H' = 2.123) and equitability (J' = 0.8543) of the January sample are greater than those of the December sample. Similarity of the samples collected in the 2 months was 0.75. From these results we infer that it is important to maintain or increase plant biodiversity in agroecosystems as weeds provide trophic resources for insects that are beneficial to agriculture.

Diaeretiella rapae MacIntosh (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae) is one of the most common and successful parasitoids of the cabbage aphid. The functional response of D. rapae towards cabbage aphids was examined in laboratory studies at three constant temperatures, 17°C, 25°C and 30°C. D. rapae exhibited a type II functional response at all three temperatures. The search rates were uninfluenced by temperature whereas handling times differed significantly between 17°C and 25°C, and between 17°C and 30°C, but not between 25°C and 30°C. This study is a first-step in the evaluation of the effectiveness of D. rapae as a biocontrol agent of Brevicoryne brassicae at different temperatures.

Establishing continuous and reliable colonies of pest-parasitoid systems in the laboratory is an essential requirement for carrying out manipulative experiments on biological control. Here we describe in detail the rearing protocols that we optimized for the efficient rearing of the cabbage moth Mamestra brassicae and its key parasitoid Microplitis mediator.

The effects of different abiotic agents that may modulate the activity of an insect's immune system are reviewed. These agents include insecticides, chitin synthesis inhibitors, juvenile hormone analogues, inert particles, antibiotics, heavy metals, radiation and miscellaneous substances. The significance of studying immunomodulation in insects treated with abiotic agents in relation to both insect control and insect-borne parasitic diseases and the link between immunomodulation in insects post-treatment with both abiotic and biotic agents are discussed.

Plant latex contains proteins and other components that defend plants against herbivorous insects. We determined the inhibitory activity of methanolic extracts of latex obtained from three species of plant: mulberry, Morus alba; jackfruit, Artocarpus heterophyllus; and weeping fig, Ficus benjamina, against trehalase in the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum. We also determined the changes that occurred throughout the life of the insect in the enzymatic activities of soluble and membrane-bound trehalase and the expression profiles of the genes encoding the two types of trehalase. Soluble trehalase activity was higher than membrane-bound trehalase activity in larvae and adults, whereas there was little difference in eggs, prepupae and pupae. The expression of the trehalases, TcTre-1 and TcTre-2, changed during insect development but did not coincide closely with changes in enzymatic activity, indicating that these changes did not necessarily depend on gene expression. All of three plant latices tested inhibited the activities of both the soluble and membrane-bound trehalase. At the gene expression level, these latices reduced the expression of TcTre-1 but not TcTre-2, indicating that the latices contain component(s) that selectively inhibit gene expression or at least differentially inhibit these two trehalase genes. The inhibition of trehalase activity resulted in a 140% increase in the concentration of trehalose in the beetle and a decrease in glucose concentration to 72% of the control. These findings show that the latices tested contain components that inhibit trehalase activity and TcTre-1 expression and thus, may contribute to the plants' defense against herbivorous insects.

The carob moth, Ectomyelois ceratoniae (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), is a serious pest and causes a considerable loss of yield of pomegranate in Iran. Apanteles myeloenta (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) is the dominant parasitoid of this pest parasitizing it more than 30% in recent years. This parasitoid is a candidate for augmentative biological control program to reduce the level of the infestation of fruit overwinter. The objective of this research was to optimize the mass production of A. myeloenta. The mean developmental time of females was 28 days and of males 27 days. Pupal development lasted 7 days. The second instar was the preferred host and most heavily parasitized (45%). Wasps that started their development in second instar hosts produced the highest progeny and those that started in third instar hosts survived as adults for longest. The sex ratio (females to males) of A. myeloenta that emerged from carob moth larvae parasitized in the first instar was 1 : 3.5, in the second instar 1 : 3 and in the third instar 1 : 2. The influence of different host ages on the functional response of A. myeloenta to host density was assessed. Logistic regression indicated a type II functional response to different densities of all the stages of the host tested.

In insects, male-derived substances transferred during copulation often alter female physiology. Thus these substances may affect female behaviour, including mating receptivity and release of sex pheromone. In the sorghum plant bug Stenotus rubrovittatus (Matsumura) (Hemiptera: Miridae), males transfer a spermatophore into the bursa copulatrix of females during copulation. Mated females of S. rubrovittatus do not mate again for at least 3 days and release lower amounts of sex pheromone than virgin females. A previous study indicates that females that receive a spermatophore are less likely to be sexually receptive to males. Therefore, we tested whether an extract of the male reproductive organ affected female mating receptivity and whether this extract and spermatophores per se affected the release of sex pheromone by females. The mating receptivity of virgin females injected with an extract of male reproductive organs was significantly lower than that of control females injected with distilled water, but not significantly different from that of females injected with an extract of male thorax (the negative control). The amount of sex pheromone released by females, however, did not differ among the different treatments. When the interval between two subsequent copulations of males is less than 1 h, males do not transfer a spermatophore during the second copulation. It is thus possible to produce artificially mated females with and without a spermatophore. However, the amount of sex pheromone released by mated females with and without a spermatophore did not differ. These results indicate that male-derived substances do not suppress release of sex pheromone by female S. rubrovittatus but, they may reduce their mating receptivity.

The effects of photoperiod on pre-imaginal development and reproductive maturation of adult females of the multicolored Asian lady beetle, Harmonia axyridis (Pallas) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), were investigated at 20°C and at photoperiods from 10L : 14D to 18L : 6D. Experiments were conducted on a laboratory strain that originated from the Russian Far East. Larvae and adults were fed on the green peach aphid Myzus persicae. Under short day conditions the pre-imaginal development was faster than under long day conditions. The acceleration of pre-imaginal development occurred when day length was shorter than 16 h and the threshold day length was ca 14 h. The rate of reproductive maturation of adult females, in contrast, was twice as high under long day conditions, with the threshold between 14L : 10D and 12L : 12D, although even under short day conditions ca 10% of the females show a tendency to mature more quickly. This difference between the thresholds of these two photoperiodic reactions indicates they are relatively independent of one another.

Plant volatiles can synergize the response to moth pheromone. Synthetic pheromone analogs, in turn, have the opposite effect in reducing pheromone attractiveness. To determine how these two types of stimuli interact and influence male moth behaviour, we performed wind tunnel experiments on the grapevine moth, Lobesia botrana. We noticed that a blend of host plant volatiles [(E)-β-caryophyllene, 1-hexanol, (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate and 1-octen-3-ol in a 100:20:10:5 ratio] significantly increased the response of males to an optimized blend of sex pheromone [(7E,9Z)-dodeca-7,9-dienyl acetate (E7,Z9-12:Ac), (7E,9Z)- dodeca-7,9-dienol (E7,Z9-12:OH) and (Z)-9-dodecenyl acetate (Z9-12:Ac)] in a 100:10:2 ratio. However, the response of males to the natural attractant was significantly reduced by two analogs [(9E,11Z)-tetradeca-9,11-dien-2-one (MK 2) and [(9E,11Z)-1,1,1-trifluoro-tetradeca-9,11-dien-2-one (TFMK 3)], of the major component of the sex pheromone of the insect (E7,Z9-12:Ac). When both stimuli were tested on males at pheromone:analog:plant volatile blend 1:100:1000 ratio, the plant blend offset the inhibitory effect induced by TFMK 3 but not that of MK 2. Our results show for the first time that under laboratory conditions plant volatiles can prevent inhibition by a pheromone analog.

The paired eversible vesicles on the postabdomen of male T. notata are likely to play an important role in intraspecific communication and possibly in the notorious aggregation behaviour of these flies at buildings in autumn. The morphological and histological study of these organs provides new evidence supporting the hypothesis that they are pheromone glands. They also constitute a strong optical signal. A detailed survey of these structures could provide the bases for targeted control methods.

We studied the water balance, body fluid osmolality and survival of the oribatid mite, Pergalumna nervosa, when exposed to drought in field and laboratory experiments. In a replicated field experiment we artificially lowered the soil water content by putting roofs over selected plots, which reduced soil water potential to levels well below the permanent wilting percentage for plants (i.e. below -1.5 MPa). Even though a slight decrease in the abundance of P. nervosa (only found in the 0-5 cm soil layer) was recorded during the most severe drought stress (ca. -3.5 MPa), the majority of adult mites clearly survived these conditions for 3 weeks in the field without migrating to deeper soil layers. Exposing field collected adults in laboratory experiments simulating even more severe drought conditions revealed that P. nervosa can survive several weeks of gradually increasing drought stress (down to -7 MPa) with moderate water loss. The osmolality of body fluids increased as dehydration progressed, but apparently as a result of simple up-concentration of solutes and not the de novo synthesis of protective osmolytes. We compare and discuss these results in the light of what is known about other arthropods.

Understanding the factors restricting the distribution of some insect species to high altitudes is hindered by poor knowledge of temporal changes in their cold hardiness during overwintering. We studied overwintering larvae of five species of Erebia butterflies (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Satyrinae) differing in altitudinal distribution: lowland E. medusa, submountain E. aethiops, subalpine E. pronoe, alpine E. cassioides, and subnivean E. pluto. We subjected them to three treatments, AutumnWarm (13/8°C), imitating conditions prior to overwintering; AutumnCold (5/0°C), imitating late autumn conditions; and WinterCold (5/0°C), differing from AutumnCold by a shorter photoperiod and longer exposure to zero temperatures. Supercooling points (SCP) did not differ between species in the AutumnWarm treatment, despite large differences in the concentrations of cryoprotectants (CrPC; lowest in E. medusa and E. aethiops). Lowland E. medusa was freeze-tolerant, the subalpine, alpine and subnivean species were freeze-avoidant, whereas submountain E. aethiops displayed a mixed strategy. SCPs diverged in the AutumnCold treatment: it increased in the lowland E. medusa (from -16.5 to -10.8°C) and reached the lowest value in E. cassioides (-21.7°C). In WinterCold, SCP increased in subalpine E. pronoe (from -16.1°C in AutumnWarm and -18.7°C in AutumnCold to -12.6°C). E. medusa decreased and E. aethiops increased their CrPCs between autumn and winter; the highest CrPC was recorded in subnivean E. pluto. CrPC did not correlate with SCP across species and treatments. Cryoprotectant profiles corroborated the difference between lowland and freeze-tolerant E. medusa and the three high altitude freeze-avoidant species, with E. aethiops in an intermediate position. Glycerol was surprisingly rare, trehalose was important in all species, and such rare compounds as monopalmitin and monostearin were abundantly present in E. pronoe, E. cassioides and E. pluto.

This review considers factors affecting the flight capacity of carabid beetles and the implications of flight for carabids. Studies from the Dutch polders in particular show that young populations of carabids consist predominantly of macropterous species and macropterous individuals of wing-dimorphic species. Also populations of wing-dimorphic carabid species at the periphery of their geographical range contain high proportions of macropterous individuals. However, studies from Baltic archipelagos show that older populations of even highly isolated island habitats contain considerable proportions of brachypterous species and individuals. This suggests that macroptery is primarily an adaptation for dispersal and that there exists a mechanism for subsequently reducing the ratio of macropterous to brachypterous species under stable conditions, due to the competitive advantage of brachyptery. Populations in isolated habitats, such as islands and mountains, have high proportions of brachypterous species. Many macropterous species do not possess functional flight muscles. Species of unstable habitats, such as tree canopies and wet habitats, are mostly macropterous. Brachypterous species tend to disappear from disturbed habitats. There is uncertainty regarding the extent to which carabid dispersal is directed and how much passive. Both Den Boer and Lindroth recognized that mostly macropterous individuals of macropterous and wing-dimorphic species disperse and found new populations, after which brachyptery tends to rapidly appear and proliferate in the newly founded population. It is most likely that the allele for brachyptery would arrive via the dispersal of gravid females which had mated with brachypterous males prior to emigration. Whilst many studies consider wing morphology traits of carabid beetles to be species-specific and permanent, a number of studies have shown that the oogenesis flight syndrome, whereby females undertake migration and subsequently lose their flight muscles by histolysis before eventually regenerating them after reproducing, has been reported for a growing number of carabid species. Wing morphology of carabid beetles clearly offers strong potential for the study of population dynamics. This field of study flourished during the 1940's to the late 1980's. Whilst a considerable amount of valuable research has been performed and published, the topic clearly holds considerable potential for future study.

The mitochondrial genome of Mesomelena mesomelaena (Loew, 1848) is the first to be sequenced in the flesh fly subfamily Miltogramminae (Diptera: Sarcophagidae). The 14,559 bp mitogenome contains 37 typical metazoan mitochondrial genes: 13 protein-coding genes, two ribosomal RNA genes and 22 transfer RNA genes, with the same locations as in the insect ground plan. All the protein-coding genes have the start codon ATN, except for cox1 (TCG). Eight protein-coding genes have the stop codon TAA, while the remaining five have the stop codon T (cox1, cox2, nad5, and nad4) or TAG (cytb). Synonymous and non-synonymous substitution rates (Ks and Ka) for each protein-coding gene indicate that these genes evolved primarily under negative (or purifying) selection (Ka < Ks). Phylogeny of Sarcophagidae is proposed based on all the sarcophagid mitogenomes in GenBank, and the subfamily topology is reconstructed as (Sarcophaginae (Paramacronychiinae, Miltogramminae)).

Parasitoid females may adjust offspring sex allocation according to the number and quality of hosts available. Because in solitary species only one offspring survives per host, already parasitized hosts are of low quality and generally rejected. Superparasitism (i.e., sequential oviposition by the same or different females) results in aggressive interactions and competition for nutritional resources among larvae. We examined variations in the offspring sex ratio of Dendrocerus carpenteri (Curtis) (Hymenoptera: Megaspilidae), a solitary ectoparasitoid developing as a hyperparasitoid on the prepupae and pupae of primary aphid parasitoids inside mummified aphids. Mated females produced a female-biased sex ratio of 0.433 (proportion of sons) when caged singly and provided with 12 mummies for 2 h; they parasitized an average of four mummies/h and rarely superparasitized. Superparasitism increased when two females were caged together and provided with 12 mummies, from 1.18 to 1.24 and 1.38 eggs/host parasitized in 1, 2 and 3 h, respectively. The offspring sex ratio became increasingly more female-biased with increase in superparasitism; however, sex ratio variations were not correlated with cohort size. One mated and one unmated female provided with 12 mummies and caged together for 1 h produced a mean cohort sex ratio of 0.645, which differed from the one predicted (0.717) by an algebraic model incorporating the assumptions that both females contribute equal numbers of offspring and that the mated female does not change her offspring-sex allocation strategy. The observed shift in the cohort sex ratio to an increased female-bias indicates that mated females of D. carpenteri change their behaviour when encountering parasitized mummies or a conspecific competitor in the same patch. By depositing fertilized rather than unfertilized eggs, a female can increase the proportion of her daughters among parasitoids competing for a diminishing host supply.

In herbivorous insects plant volatiles have an important role in locating mates and oviposition sites. The aim of this study was to test the antennal and behavioural responses of females of Isoceras sibirica Alpheraky (Lepidoptera: Cossidae) to the volatiles produced by Asparagus officinalis L. Electroantennographs (EAG) revealed that the antennae of I. sibirica respond in a dose dependent way to hexanal, limonene, 2-ethyl-2-hexenal, linalool and α-terpineol. In flight tunnel experiments, 2-ethyl-2-hexenal, α-terpineol, hexanal, ρ-cymene and geraniol were significantly more attractive to females of I. sibirica than other chemicals. These findings indicate that host volatiles are important for host recognition in I. sibirica.