Species of springtails (Collembola) have a stratified distribution along the soil/air profile and present an opportunity to study adaptive traits relating to a gradient of fluctuating humidity. The habitat of eu-edaphic species (found in deeper litter and soil layers) secures a relatively stable humidity, whereas hemi-edaphic (found in upper litter layers) and epigeic springtails (found on soil surface or vegetation) can experience an increased range of moisture fluctuation with much more rapid shifts between extremes. We hypothesized that the capacity for acclimation to drought conditions is better developed in species associated with the soil surface than in soil-dwelling species. To test this hypothesis, we measured the osmotic response of two epigeic, two hemi-edaphic and three eu-edaphic species to mild drought acclimation (3 d at -1.5 MPa; the average wilting point of plants) and compared the drought tolerance of drought acclimated animals with controls. Epigeic species had no or very little osmotic regulation during mild drought acclimation and unexpectedly became less tolerant to subsequent acute drought stress than controls. The hemi-edaphic and eu-edaphic species significantly increased body fluid osmolality in response to mild drought acclimation. However, none of these species became more drought-tolerant after exposure to mild drought. In conclusion, we found that the osmotic response to drought acclimation was indeed related to the vertical position of a species in the soil/air profile, however, the relationship was opposite to our hypothesis.

The stingless bee Melipona (Michmelia) seminigra Friese is a polytypic species widely distributed in Brazilian Amazon and Bolivia. Seven subspecies are recognized, four are described, which inhabit mutually exclusive areas in the Amazon basin, although zones of hybridization are recorded. The three other subspecies, despite being recognized by taxonomists are undescribed. Melipona seminigra is a good honey-producer and an important pollinator of native flora and crops. Partial DNA sequence of cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI) mitochondrial gene (526 bp) was used to identify the four described subspecies of M. seminigra (M. s. abunensis, M. s. merrillae, M. s. pernigra, M. s. seminigra) and two other possible subspecies (M. s. ssp1 and M. s. ssp2). We added public data (sequences of ten other Melipona species) of the same subgenera and carried out phylogenetic analyses. The aim was to evaluate if subspecies in the M. seminigra complex could be delimited using COI and measure the genetic distances between them. Our results revealed that the genetic distances between subspecies of M. seminigra ranged from 0.4 to 2.7% (average 1.80 ± 0.47) and among Melipona species from 0.2 to 2.9% (average 2.13 ± 0.5). The average haplotype diversity was 0.8770 ± 0.0140 and average nucleotide diversity 0.0166 ± 0.0004. Phylogenetic and clustering analysis revealed well delimited clusters for subspecies of M. seminigra and that the inter subspecies divergences are similar to inter species divergence. Our findings indicate that the COI gene can be used for delimiting subspecies of M. seminigra.

Mate choice is one of the main components of sexual selection, with females usually considered to be the selective sex. Male status is an important factor that affects female choice and to a large extent female mating preference. Pachycrepoideus vindemmiae (Rondani) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) is an important solitary ectoparasitic idiobiont parasitoid that attacks several fly species and thus can be used as a biological control agent. We explored the influence of male status on mate selection, fecundity and offspring sex ratio. The results show that (1) P. vindemmiae females prefer to mate with young and large males and tended to choose males with only one mating experience; (2) the age, body size and mating status of males did not significantly affect female fecundity; and (3) the proportion of male offspring was larger when females mated with older, small and more often mated males. These results show that P. vindemmiae females prefer to mate with young and large males that had mated few times, and that mating with these males results in a higher proportion of female offspring. In addition, this study also indicates the way of rearing P. vindemmiae that produce more female offspring for use as biological control agents.

Two new species and two new subspecies of the satyrine butterfly genus Punargentus Heimlich, P. atusparia sp. n., P. heimlichi sp. n., P. blanchardi libertas ssp. n. and P. atusparia yupania ssp. n., are described from north-central Peru (Ancash, Huánuco and La Libertad). The affinities of the new taxa are evaluated based on molecular data obtained using target enrichment and COI barcoding. Punargentus is fully supported and consists of two branches, the P. lamna clade with four species and P. blanchardi clade with three species, two of which are described here. Species in the P. blanchardi clade occur in Andean shrubland, at altitudes between 2800-3600 m, whereas those in the P. lamna clade occur in puna grassland at 3600-4600 m, with occasional overlaps. Based on their habitat preferences, none of the newly described species are in need of immediate conservation measures. The genus Etcheverrius Herrera is reinstated, with E. chiliensis (Guérin-Méneville) and E. tandilensis (Köhler), comb. n.

Parental care is reported in several insect orders. Usually, it involves protecting eggs, burying them, moving a batch of eggs from place to place and feeding the larvae. Insect parental care is well developed in Heteroptera and is particularly widespread in the superfamily Pentatomoidea. The species best known for their maternal care belong to the subfamily Sehirinae (Cydnidae) and the genus Parastrachia (Parastrachiidae). There are no published data on parental care in species of the genus Dismegistus (the second genus within the family Parastrachiidae). This paper provides the first reports of females of species of Dismegistus carrying and guarding egg batches in the same way as species in the genus Parastrachia and certain Sehirinae.

Co-occurrence of species with similar trophic requirements, such as odonates, seems to depend both on them occupying different microhabitats and differing in their life-cycles. The life cycles of the dragonflies Boyeria irene and Onychogomphus uncatus were studied in two consecutive years, mainly by systematic sampling of larvae in seven permanent head courses that constitute the upper basin of the River Águeda, western Spain, in the central part of the ranges of these two species. The size ranges of the last five larval stadia of both species were established based on biometric data. The eggs of the egg-overwintering aeshnid hatched in late spring and early summer and for the gomphid hatching peaked in middle-late summer. Both species showed mixed voltinism with "cohort splitting". B. irene had a dominant three-year development (partivoltinism), with some developing in two years (semivoltinism). O. uncatus requires four, sometimes three years to complete development (all partivoltine). B. irene larvae spent the winter before emergence in the last three, maybe four stadia, as a "summer species". O. uncatus mainly behaved as a "spring species", most larvae spending the last winter in the final larval stadium.

Maternal effects of heat shock are reported for some species of insects, but little is known about such effects in the western flower thrips (WFT) Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). WFT is a pest of vegetables in greenhouses worldwide. It is susceptible to high temperatures in its natural environment and is controlled using heat treatment in China. WFT population growth is suppressed by a brief exposure to a high temperature of 40°C or 45°C in the laboratory. To explore the mechanism by which high temperatures suppress the growth of WFT populations, as well as the effects of multiple heat treatments on WFT, we recorded the duration of development and survival of immature WFT, and the sex ratio (female/male) and fecundity of F_1, F₂, F₃ and F₄ adult females that developed after a single heat shock, and those of F₂ offspring after a double heat shock. We also recorded the longevity and ovarian structure of adult females of the treated generation (P) and their F₁, F₂ and F₃ offspring after a single heat shock. In addition, we determined whether the effects of a heat shock on second instar nymphs and adults differed. The results indicate that exposure of the parental generation to 41°C or 45°C for 2 h significantly prolonged the duration of development, reduced survival of immature WFT and altered the sex ratio (female/male), longevity and fertility of their adult female offspring. The effects of a heat shock of 41°C persisted for two generations, whilst the effect of heat shock of 45°C persisted for three generations. In addition, double heat shocks had more pronounced effects than a single heat shock. Heat shock administered to second instar nymphs resulted in a decrease in the number of ovarioles, whilst a heat shock administered to adults resulted in ovariole deformity. The maternal effects of heat shock in terms of the biological parameters of WFT, structure and number of ovarioles, are critical in determining the suppression of the growth at high temperatures of WFT populations.

To analyse the phylogenetic relationships of members of the family Erebidae, the mitogenomes of two species namely, Hypospila bolinoides Guenée, 1852 and Lygephila dorsigera (Walker, 1865) were sequenced. H. bolinoides and L. dorsigera have circular genomes that are 15,640 bp and 15,567 bp long, respectively. Despite their different lengths, both genomes contain an identical gene order, which includes 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 22 tRNA genes, two rRNA genes and an A+T-rich region. The nucleotide composition of the H. bolinoides mitogenome vis-à-vis the A+T rich region was 80.08%, which is higher than that of L. dorsigera (78.03%). The AT skew and GC skew were mostly negative for both species. The A+T-rich regions of H. bolinoides and L. dorsigera were 287 bp and 383 bp long, respectively, and confined to common characteristics of Noctuoidea. Concatenated sequences of 13 PCGs from 170 taxa belonging to the five families of the superfamily Noctuoidea and two butterfly mitogenomes used as outgroups were utilized for Bayesian inference (BI) and Maximum Likelihood (ML) analyses. The first-ever comprehensive analysis of the mitogenomes of the genera Lygephila (Billberg, 1820) and Hypospila (Guenée, 1852) revealed that the superfamily Noctuoidea has a well supported monophyletic relationship with (Notodontidae + (Erebidae + (Nolidae + (Euteliidae + Noctuidae))). In support of previous partial genome analyses, the present study provides phylogenomic evidence that L. dorsigera, hitherto classified as a member of the subfamily Erebinae, can be placed within the subfamily Toxocampinae.

The true bug Oxycarenus lavaterae has spread northwards through Europe from the Mediterranean at the beginning of the 21st century. Temperature and photoperiod in particular countries are important for the prediction of further spread. The timing and conditions for the termination of winter diapause in Bulgarian and Czech populations of O. lavaterae were determined. The progress in diapause development in the Bulgarian population was monitored by changes in the duration of the pre-oviposition period under long day (18L : 6D) conditions, which decreased gradually from October to June from 98 to 10 days at 20°C and 62 to 9 days at 25°C. There was no change in the photoperiodic response around the winter solstice in December/January, as is recorded for many other temperate insects. Instead, most overwintering females of O. lavaterae transferred to the diapause-promoting short-day photoperiod (12L : 12D) at 25°C did not start to oviposit even though they lived up to one year. The percentage of females that oviposited under short day conditions gradually increased from December to May, but only reached approximately 50% at most. In the Czech Republic, the number of individuals observed resting in overwintering aggregations on tree trunks gradually decreased up to early June. This bug seems remain in diapause until lime trees flower and their seeds become available.

Non-native species pose a threat to native organisms. When non-native and native species are closely related, the former can often competitively exclude the latter. Many studies have focused on competitive exclusion of native insect species by non-native eusocial hymenopterans, including ants, hornets, paper wasps and bees. Although solitary species of wasps have been introduced in many regions, few studies have investigated the effects of these insects on their native congeners. We investigated competitive interactions between native and non-native solitary wasps belonging to the same genus (Hymenoptera: Vespidae: Eumeninae: Anterhynchium). Specifically, we compared resource use and natural enemies of the native Anterhynchium flavomarginatum and supposedly non-native A. gibbifrons at a forest edge in Takasago, Hyogo, Japan, in June-October 2019, using trap nests (bamboo canes). Of 950 bamboo canes, 70 (7.4%) and 50 (5.3%) were used as nests by A. flavomarginatum and A. gibbifrons, respectively. Anterhynchium flavomarginatum produced two generations over the period studied, whereas A. gibbifrons produced only one. Although A. gibbifrons began nesting two weeks after A. flavomarginatum, the nesting period of A. gibbifrons overlapped that of the first nesting period of A. flavomarginatum. Nest architecture and the inner diameter of the canes used by both species were similar, suggesting potential competition for nesting resources. Anterhynchium flavomarginatum used larvae of 14 species of moths (Lepidoptera: Crambidae, Pyralidae, Tortricidae) as food for their larval offspring, whereas A. gibbifrons used only a single species, Demobotys pervulgalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae). Prey species were exclusive to each wasp species, indicating no competition for this resource. Three parasitoid species, Macrosiagon nasutum (Coleoptera: Ripiphoridae), Amobia distorta (Diptera: Sarcophagidae) and Megaselia sp. (Diptera: Phoridae), attacked both Anterhynchium species. The percentage parasitism by Amobia distorta was higher for the native A. flavomarginatum. Anterhynchium gibbifrons may indirectly affect A. flavomarginatum via shared parasitoids.

Ultraviolet B (UV-B) is a significant environmental factor affecting insect development, survival, and reproduction. DNAJ proteins are molecular chaperones found ubiquitously in insects that are crucial for their adaptation to environmental stresses. This study aimed to elucidate the roles of DNAJ genes in the response of Myzus persicae to UV-B stress. Herein, we identified six DNAJ genes in the aphid M. persicae, a devastating agricultural pest. We analyzed their expression profiles at different stages of development, in different tissues and for various durations of UV-B exposure. The expression levels of MpDNAJC30, MpDNAJC11, MpDNAJC2, and MpDNAJC3 were highest in wingless adults, while MpDNAJC9 and MpDNAJC17 were highest in second- and third-instar nymphs, respectively. Six MpDNAJs had higher expression levels in the epidermis and embryos, and lower levels in the head. Additionally, the expression levels of all genes increased significantly under different durations of UV-B exposure. Knockout of the DNAJ genes using RNA interference caused a significant decline in the survival rate, weight, body length, and body width of M. persicae exposed to UV-B radiation. Our research provides valuable insights into the stress response mechanisms of M. persicae, highlighting the importance of DNAJ genes in mediating their adaptation to UV-B stress.

The field cricket, Scapsipedus icipe Hugel and Tanga (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) is edible and could be used to reduce malnutrition in Sub-Saharan Africa. As the demand for cricket products is increasing, there is a need to find cost-effective ways of rearing this cricket using locally available and affordable sources of food. This study evaluated the feeding preferences of the field cricket S. icipe for 11 species of dayflowers (Commelina spp.; Commelinaceae), using no-choice and multiple-choice experiments in controlled environments. Leaf feeding rates and the nutrient content and phytochemicals of the plants were determined. The ANOVA results indicate significantly higher feeding rates when offered Commelina petersii and C. forskaolii, than Commelina sp. and C. purpurea in no-choice experiments. Multiple-choice experiments ranked C. petersii as the most preferred species followed by C. forskaolii and the two reference species, C. benghalensis var. benghalensis (non-hybrid variant) and C. benghalensis (hybrid variant). The Spearman correlation and PCA revealed positive significant associations between leaf feeding and Ca and NDF content of leaves and a negative significant association between Ca and NDF. A high Ca/low NDF content was recorded for C. petersii and a low Ca/high NDF content for C. purpurea. The beta regression analysis and a biplot identified six phytochemical constituents influencing leaf feeding: phenols, alkaloids, tannins, glycosides, saponins and anthraquinones. Phenols stimulate feeding by S. icipe on C. petersii and C. forskaolii, whereas the tannins and alkaloids in Commelina sp. and C. purpurea, acted as deterrents. Nutrient content and phytochemicals are two important factors determining the suitability of species of Commelina for the field cricket S. icipe. Based on the results of this study, the leaves of C. petersii are highly recommended as a source of food for the mass rearing of this field cricket (S. icipe) and boosting entomophagy in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Continuous cover forestry is a silvicultural system designed to mimic natural forest dynamics and maintain the structure of uneven-aged semi-natural forests. One of the key steps in this approach is to create small gaps in the canopy by logging small groups of trees or individual trees. In gap-cutting, the main goal is to determine the optimal shape and size of these gaps in order to ensure spontaneous natural regeneration of the major tree species in the canopy. Yet, it remains relatively unknown how various arthropods respond to such forestry practices. Carabid beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) play an important role as predators of various small invertebrates and their predators are mostly vertebrates. The interactions between carabids and their predators might change due to shifts in the distribution of patches of suitable habitat as a result of forest management. Here, the aim was to determine whether gaps in the canopy of two different sizes (small vs. large) and shapes (circular vs. elongated) can affect the predation pressure on large carabids in a Hungarian oak-hornbeam forest. Using 3D-printed decoys of the largest common carabid in the area, Carabus coriaceus, placed in each of the four gap treatments and control plots, the seasonal, diurnal, and treatment-specific aspects of predation pressure was estimated. This revealed no significant effects of any of the variables included in this study, which indicates that predation pressure in undisturbed controls located in closed forests and small canopy gaps did not differ significantly. Creating gaps in the canopy by felling few trees seems to be a good strategy for maintaining the forest ecological network with minimal disruption compared clear-felling large areas.

The Chinese white pine beetle, Dendroctonus armandi Tsai and Li is a native species of bark beetle and one of the most destructive in much of western China. Little is known about the characterization of the pheromones trans-verbenol and verbenone, and their functions in D. armandi are unknown. Electroantennogram tests (EAG) and olfactory assays (Y-tube assays) in the laboratory revealed that (1) trans-verbenol may be an anti-aggregation pheromone for male and an aggregation pheromone for female D. armandi and (2) female beetles are more attracted to controls (hexane) than low concentrations of verbenone and male beetles more attracted to controls than high concentrations of verbenone. Field trials indicated that the addition of verbenone to bait used to trap D. armandi remarkably decreased the efficiency of field trapping. These results indicate that verbenone is an anti-aggregation pheromone for male D. armandi. This research provides evidence of the role of verbenone among the different types of pheromones. The pheromone verbenone clearly could be used to protect healthy Chinese white pines.

In insects, the photoperiodic system comprises a linked sequence of events from photoreception to final seasonally-appropriate phenotypes such as overwintering diapause. The first and last of these events are reasonably well known, but central phenomena such as those distinguishing short from long days (time measurement) and the nature, accumulation and transfer of this information through development, metamorphosis and sometimes across generations remains obscure. Bünning's intuitive suggestion that photoperiodic time measurement was a function of the circadian system, made eight decades ago, however, has provided a framework for numerous studies investigating these connections. This review examines the development of Bünning's hypothesis from its origin in plants to the physiology of diapause in insects. Despite considerable inter-species differences, a close and probably causal relationship between circadian rhythmicity and photoperiodism is indicated.

The effects of novel perennial energy crops on arthropod abundance and diversity were tested using three field trials in Bavaria. Established cup plant (Silphium perfoliatum), Virginia mallow (Sida hermaphrodita) and tall wheat grass (Thinopyrum ponticum) plots were sampled in autumn using a modified leaf blower and their arthropod faunas compared with that recorded in maize plots. At the time of sampling, maize, cup plant and Virginia mallow had already been harvested and samples from the remaining stubble were compared with those from open ground. Collembola were the most abundant group. The highest abundance and diversity of arthropods was recorded in tall wheat grass, with Hemiptera and Aranea especially benefitting from the green and taller vegetation. Post-harvest cup plant and Virginia mallow plots harboured a more diverse and more abundant arthropod assemblage than maize plots. Stubble was identified as a suitable habitat for arthropods in agricultural fields. In conclusion, the integration of perennial energy crops into existing biogas production systems could play an important role in supporting arthropods in agricultural landscapes by providing crucial structures and resources, such as the grassy vegetation of tall wheat grass in autumn and the long-lasting stubbles of cup plant and Virginia mallow.

An integrated taxonomic revision of the Afrotropical Glostatus Schedl, 1939 is presented, which is based on multiple genetic markers and morphological characters. Both types of data clearly distinguish Glostatus from other genera in Xyloctonini and support a separate placement in subtribe Glostatina trib. n. Six new species are described: Glostatus aculeus sp. n., G. acutidentes sp. n., G. paraxyloctonus sp. n., G. procurvus sp. n., G. tenuis sp. n. and G. tuberculatus sp. n. The synonymising of the genus Stephanopodius Schedl, 1941 with Glostatus involved new combinations and synonyms for Glostatus dispar (Eggers, 1936) comb. n. (= Stephanopodius giganteus Schedl, 1950, syn. n.), Glostatus ghanaensis (Schedl, 1962) comb. n., Glostatus mkulumusius (Eggers, 1919) comb. n. (= Stephanopodius usambaricus Schedl, 1941, syn. n.) and Glostatus nunbergi nom. n. for Stephanopodius squamosus Nunberg, 1973 (nec Glostatus squamosus Schedl, 1962). Other new combinations include Glostatus tredli (Reitter, 1908) comb. n., Glostatus scutiae (Schedl, 1959) comb. n., and Glostatus xanthophloeae (Schedl, 1957) comb. n., all from Hypothenemus Westwood, 1836, and Glostatus giganteus (Schedl, 1950) comb. n. from Cryphalus Erichson, 1836. Addi­tional new synonyms are reported for Glostatus acaciae (Schedl, 1957) (= Glostatus hirsutus Schedl, 1962, syn. n.), Glostatus declividepressus Schedl, 1939 (= Glostatus assimilis Schedl, 1957, syn. n.) and Glostatus pondoanus Schedl, 1958 (= Glostatus squamosus Schedl, 1962, syn. n.; = Hypocryphalus dubiosus Schedl, 1970, syn. n.). A key to all known species is provided together with photographs of all the species.

We previously demonstrated that two immune signaling pathways, Toll and IMD, were concomitantly activated in the model beetle Tribolium castaneum by challenges to their immune system by several species of microbes, including Gram-positive and -negative bacteria as well as yeast. This contrasts with the Drosophila immune system in which more specific pathway activation depending on the type of microbe is well established. We suggest that the activation of an indiscriminate immune pathway in T. castaneum is due in part to an unselective recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns by the extracellular sensing modules of the two pathways. In order to obtain a more detailed understanding of the T. castaneum immune pathway, we investigated whether potential components of the T. castaneum IMD pathway, Caspar, DREDD and FADD, are involved in immune reactions triggered by microbial challenges. A sequence analysis of these three genes with the orthologues of other species, including insects, mouse and human, indicated that T. castaneum Caspar, DREDD and FADD functioned as immune signal transducers, which are usually induced by microbial challenges. However, these genes were not induced by microbial challenges. To establish whether these genes are involved in immune reactions, we used RNA interference-mediated knockdown of these genes to assess the microbial induction levels of the representative read-out antimicrobial peptide genes of the respective classes. The results indicated that these genes encode the canonical constituents of the IMD pathway of this beetle. DREDD and FADD influenced the induction of Toll-dependent antimicrobial peptide genes, providing novel crosstalk points between the two immune pathways, which appears to support indiscriminate pathway activation in T. castaneum. Furthermore, the phenotypes of DREDD or FADD knockdown pupae challenged by the two model bacterial pathogens correlated with AMP gene induction in the respective knockdowns, indicating that these intracellular factors contributed to antibacterial host defenses.

The present study documents new records of winged insects collected from fragments of nests of the tropical fire ant Solenopsis virulens (Smith), using a trap, which is also described in detail. The emergence chamber consisted of a 5L opaque plastic container, a 50 ml transparent vial and a 1.5 ml microcentrifuge tube. This trap captured 70 insects from 12 nests of Solenopsis virulens. They were classified into two orders, 13 families, 18 genera and 39 morphospecies. The most abundant order was Diptera, with nine families. The richest family was Cecidomyiidae, with 12 morphospecies, followed by Sciaridae with seven. Ceratopogonidae, Chironomidae, Chloropidae, Drosophilidae, Hybotidae, Phoridae and Psychodidae were also represented. Hymenoptera included a total of three families: Figitidae (Eucoilinae), Platygastridae (Scelioninae and Platygastrinae) and Diapriidae. Although the association of several genera (Diptera: 11/ Hymenoptera: 1) and families (Diptera: 1/ Hymenoptera: 1) with ant nests was recorded for the first time, it is likely that many of these insects are only fortuitous or temporary inquilines and not obligatory myrmecophiles. The trap described is also useful for catching insects that emerge from other substrates such as leaves, logs, galls, termite nests, etc. Furthermore, it could enable researchers to sample and further study important material in the laboratory and decrease the costs of sampling during field trips.

Rhyzopertha dominica is a pest that uses trypsin-like serine protease enzymes to hydrolyse the proteins in the cereal grains on which it feeds. The present study reveals for the first time that that there are both glycosylated and non-glycosylated serine proteases. The progeny of R. dominica reared on the grain three varieties of wheat were used to fractionate their trypsin-like serine proteases using Concanavalin A affinity chromatography. The albumin fractions from the wheat cultivars used in this study were subjected to size exclusion chromatography to fractionate the albumin inhibitors that are highly specific for the serine protease activity of R. dominica. Kinetic and thermodynamic assays were used to differentiate both types of enzymes. In general, the catalytic efficiency values V_max/K_m for glycosylated proteases were higher, indicating that glycosylation increases the affinity for the substrate. Inhibition assays using wheat albumins revealed that the glycosylated enzymes had higher K_i values, indicating a low affinity for the inhibitors than the non-glycosylated enzymes. Thermodynamic analysis indicates that glycosylation increases the activation energy Ea improving the serine proteases' catalysis. Thus it is likely that R. dominica uses glycosylated proteases in order to optimize the hydrolysis of cereal proteins and nullify the action of wheat grain protease inhibitors and increase its chances of survival.

Phytophagous insects may be expected to prefer host-plant species on which their larvae perform best, but this has rarely been explored in grass-feeding butterflies. We explored links between oviposition preferences, larval food preferences, and performance (larval survival and development time, pupal mass, and adult longevity) on 18 species of grass in the common evening brown, Melanitis leda L. (Nymphalidae: Melanitini), a tropical butterfly that has been recorded from a large number of species of grass. Melanitis leda oviposited on all of the grass species offered in choice experiments, and larvae were able to develop to the adult stage on almost all of them. Oviposition preferences were for species of plants on which larval survival was higher, but were not correlated with larval development. The mother's choice of host plant appeared to affect performance of the resulting adults as large butterflies had longer life spans. Ovipositing females appeared to adjust clutch size and position of their eggs on a plant depending on plant traits. Larval survival was only marginally correlated with larval growth rate on the different species of plants. Larvae showed host-plant preferences that were not correlated with adult oviposition preferences, larval survival, or larval growth. Overall, while M. leda can utilize a large number of species of grass, it shows marked oviposition preferences. Apparent fine-tuning of clutch size and positioning of eggs on plants with different traits might be another adaptation associated with using a large number of species of plants. We conclude that this grass feeding butterfly selects oviposition sites that maximize the chances of their larvae surviving.

The present study is based on a 20-year study of fields that were previously farmed conventionally and then changed to being farmed organically and a 10-year study of a conventionally farmed field in south-eastern and central Schleswig-Holstein, North Germany, respectively. The carabid beetles were sampled throughout each year using pitfall traps. The analysis aimed to study the changes in the phenology in terms of activity-density associated with changing climate. Climate data revealed an increase in temperature during the period of this study, which was not significant during the single study periods, but significant if a longer period of 70 years is considered. In particular, spring temperatures (March/April) increased. Approximately 36% of the species became active earlier. For 25% of the species their earlier start was not significant but nevertheless associated with temperature increase in spring or the number of cold days (< 0°C) and warm days (> 5°C) in March/April. In total, the earlier start of 69% of the species can in some way be associated with a change in climate in spring. Species with a flexible response to temperature were mostly indifferent to the temperature increase. Comparisons of the data over the 30-year period indicate that the process lasted for at least one to three decades. It is likely that the changes in biological processes caused by global climate change will affect the composition of species and competition between them in the future.

Seasonal and geographical adaptations in terms of obligatory embryonic diapause in the parthenogenetic stick insect, Ramulus mikado, were studied. First and second instar nymphs were collected at locations at three latitudes in Japan and reared in the laboratory under a photoperiod of 16L : 8D or 12L : 12D at 25°C. Their eggs were kept at 30°C for 30 or 60 days after oviposition, but no eggs hatched. Hatching was observed more than 100 days after transfer from 30°C to 15°C. The long period between transfer and hatching indicate that eggs in an early embryonic stage of development enter diapause at high-temperatures. The time from oviposition to hatching of eggs laid by adults that originated from the three locations kept under constant conditions between 15 and 25°C were compared. In all these experiments, eggs laid by individuals originating from high latitudes took longer to hatch. The eggs of those originating from Okayama and Ehime did not hatch at 25°C. However, more than 80% of the eggs of those that originated from the northernmost population hatched. Hatching before winter was observed when the eggs of those that originated from the northern population were placed outdoors in Okayama, even when the maternal insects were reared under long-day conditions in the laboratory. These findings indicate that univoltine R. mikado enters diapause twice during embryonic development, which enables it survive adverse conditions in summer and winter, respectively. Furthermore, diapause intensity was lowest in insects that originated from the lowest latitude.

Spruce forests face many threats such as climate change and bark beetle outbreaks. Yet, bark beetle dynamics have a long co-evolutionary history strongly linked to spruce forest structural dynamics. Disturbed spruce forest sites resulting from bark beetle outbreaks therefore should not be regarded as degraded land, but as early successional stages following natural forest dynamics. Three post-bark-beetle disturbance sites and one closed-canopy site in the Bavarian Forest and Šumava National Parks were investigated with the focus on moth communities. The three disturbed sites had undergone different post-disturbance management regimes, with one being treated by salvage logging, while at the other two forest sites deadwood was kept in the forest. To avoid the spread of bark beetles, however, the bark of dead trees was either gouged or removed. The aim was to determine how many moths can be found at the undisturbed and disturbed forest sites and if differences in community composition can be explained by different management regimes. The results highlight that natural forest disturbance can increase moth diversity, especially by favouring species that are associated with open and shrub habitats. Many rare and endangered species benefit from bark beetle outbreaks, indicating that accepting natural forest dynamics is an important part of conservation management. Post-bark beetle management seems to have a minor effect on moth communities.

Red wood ants (RWA) of the Formica rufa group are ecosystem engineers and important species in boreal and temperate forests. However, the permanent and temporal loss of forest habitats is a serious threat to their existence and is likely to increase with climate change. Due to the current threat of losing species, quick actions are needed. Reported here is the biogeography, relative abundance and habitat preferences of five species of RWA in Finland based on citizen science data. Species that occur in the lowlands of the Alps also occur throughout the southern parts of Finland. Only two of the five species, F. aquilonia Yarrow, 1955 and F. lugubris Zetterstedt, 1838, were common throughout the country, including northern Lapland. As their name suggests, RWAs occur mostly in forests and forest edges, but they also sometimes inhabit open or semi-open yards, mires and meadows. The most forest-specialist species is F. aquilonia and the least F. rufa Linnaeus, 1761. Surprisingly, the meadow wood ant F. pratensis Retzius, 1783 is the second most forest dwelling species, however, its preference for forest edges is clearly higher than for forest interiors. Based on current data, F. rufa may be the most tolerant of living close to buildings as its relative abundance in yards was much higher than that of the other species. The data obtained on distributions and relative abundances could be compared in the future with the results of similar surveys to detect changes in species distributions, relative abundances and habitat preferences.

Maternal silkworms (Bombyx mori) of bivoltine strains are destined to produce either diapause or non-diapause eggs depending on environmental factors, such as, temperature and photoperiod experienced during the egg and larval stages. However, the molecular mechanisms that program diapause, which depend on information about the environment, remain unclear. We aimed to identify genes that are involved in programming diapause in the next generation in bivoltine silkworms. We therefore screened differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the larval brains of diapause- and non-diapause-egg producers kept under three different diapause-inducing conditions using cap analysis of gene expression. Under each condition, only temperature, illumination or photoperiod was changed during the egg or larval stage as a diapause-controlling stimulus to induce the production of diapause or non-diapause eggs. We then verified the expression of DEGs that were common to all the three conditions using real-time quantitative PCR. We investigated the functional involvement of candidate genes in programming diapause using double-stranded RNA interference (RNAi) for gene knockdown. The results showed more abundant juvenile hormone acid methyltransferase (Jhamt) and proton-coupled folate transporter (Pcft) gene expression in the brains of fifth instar larvae of producers of diapause eggs than those of non-diapause eggs under the three conditions. Furthermore, RNAi against either of these genes significantly decreased the incidence of diapause in the next generation. These findings indicate that both Jhamt and Pcft are involved in the programming of diapause in the silkworm brain. These genes could function in retaining information that leads to diapause in the next generation.

Carabid beetles are common inhabitants of agricultural fields where they encounter a variety of food options - including prey and weed seeds. The feeding behaviors of carabids are often influenced by the physical and chemical traits of prey and seed species, as such traits determine prey or seed species that are suitable for consumption. However, some carabid species may prey upon other carabids, complicating their role as beneficial insects due to consumptive (direct) and non-consumptive (indirect) intra-guild predation effects. The non-consumptive effects of intra-guild predation are expected to influence prey and seed foraging behaviors of carabids because those behaviors are likely to be adapted as a function of duration and intensity of predation risk. In this study, we wanted to explore the non-consumptive effects of the carabid intra-guild predator Pterosticus melanarius on mobility and feeding behavior of two carabid omnivores: Harpalus amputatus and Amara spp. Choice and no-choice feeding arenas coupled with a video system were used to study the responses of carabid beetles to the odor cues of P. melanarius. Odor cues left by P. melanarius caused H. amputatus to reduce its activity when canola seeds (Brassica napus) were offered in the feeding arenas. In contrast, P. melanarius cues did not cause H. amputatus to alter its mobility when freeze-killed fruit flies were offered in the feeding arenas, although this species did increase consumption of fruit flies under these cues. Amara spp. offered canola seeds increased their mobility and relative seed preferences when exposed to the odor cues of P. melanarius. Overall, our work shows carabid species do alter aspects of their foraging behavior under intra-guild predation risks, but this is unlikely to reduce their contributions to seed or prey biocontrol.

In this paper, I review the effects of the diet of ladybirds on chemical defence in this group of beetles. The tendency to reflex bleed and the diversity of autogenously produced alkaloids in different taxa may be evolutionarily related to diet and the likelihood of food limitation. Within predatory species, both prey quantity and quality have been shown to affect autogenous alkaloid production. A few ladybird predators have been suggested to adaptively sequester toxins from their prey for their own defence. However, in most cases the evidence for this is limited, with questions remaining about the costs of accumulated toxins and their defensive value, especially over and above pre-existing autogenous defence. Only a single case (Hyperaspis trifurcata and carminic acid) is well supported. In the case of ladybird predators acquiring pyrrolizidine alkaloids from the ragwort aphid Aphis jacobaeae, I show that toxin accumulation is not very costly and the aphid is even an essential prey for some ladybirds. However, the defensive value of pyrrolizidine alkaloids to ladybirds is still not investigated. Intraspecific diversity in autogenous chemical defence could be reinforced further if chemical protection is conferred via sequestered chemicals. However, to understand better how ladybird diet and chemical defence interact, we need a clearer grasp of how the defensive chemicals of food are resisted or tolerated by ladybirds.

Bombyliidae (bee flies) is a large family in the order Diptera. Their larvae are predators or parasitoids of several insect orders, such as Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera and Diptera, some species of the genus Systoechus are predators of grasshopper eggs. The adults visit flowers for nectar and mating, which makes them important pollinators. Their classification and systematic position are still strongly debated. There were only two complete mitochondrial (mt) genomes of Bombyliidae. Mt genomes of Villa fasciata, Bombylius candidus, Heteralonia anemosyris, Ligyra guangdongana, Systropus excisus and Exhyalanthrax afer were sequenced in order to determine the diversity of mt genomes in this family. A comparative mt genomic analysis of these newly sequenced species revealed that the sizes of the mt genome ranged from 15,036 bp to 17,992 bp. All tRNAs had cloverleaf secondary structures, but the dihydrouridine (DHU) arm of tRNA^{Ser (AGN)} is absent. The phylogenetic analyses based on both Bayesian Inference (BI) and Maximum Likelihood (ML) supported Bombyliidae being the sister group of Asilidae. Within Bombyliidae, the analysis recovered subfamilies Toxophorinae, Anthracinae and Bombyliinae, and Anthracinae is the sister group of Bombyliinae.

We review the cicada genus Auritibicen Lee, 2015 based on the description of ten new species: A. aethus sp. n., A. daoxianensis sp. n., A. pallidus sp. n., A. rotundus sp. n., A. curvatus sp. n., A. purus sp. n., A. parvus sp. n., A. gracilis sp. n., A. septatus sp. n. and A. lijiangensis sp. n. Auritibicen shikokuanus (Kato, 1959) is confirmed to be a synonym of Auritibicen kyushyuensis (Kato, 1926). Diagnoses and descriptions, along with illustrations of the structure of male genitalia, are provided for all Auritibicen species. The systematics of Auritibicen is elucidated using both morphological and molecular characterization. Thirty-five morphological characters of the 24 species of Auritibicen and one outgroup taxon, Chremistica ochracea (Walker, 1850), were scored. Morphological phylogenetic analyses reveal the relationships among related species of Auritibicen, which are supported by a number of morphological characters. The mitochondrial gene fragments of Cytochrome Oxidase I (COI) of 11 species of Auritibicen and two outgroup Lyristes species were analyzed and yielded identical robust phylogenetic trees. The phylogram based on a Bayesian analysis of both morphological and molecular data is similar to the ML/BI topologies based only on the molecular data. The molecular phylogenetic analysis indicates that species of Auritibicen are structured phylogeographically, with related species clustered into three lineages. The divergence time estimated based on molecular data indicates that the divergence of Auritibicen from Lyristes occurred during the Miocene, and the most recent common ancestor (tMRCA) of Auritibicen evolved during the Pliocene. However, the time when the main divergence events of species of Auritibicen occurred was the Pleistocene. From the combination of the phylogeny and updated geographical distributions, we infer that the center of distribution of Auritibicen could be Southwest China (e.g., Sichuan and Yunnan Provinces), from where species of this genus spreaded northeastwards to Shaanxi, Hubei and other provinces along the Qinling and Daba Mountains, then further northeastwards to Hebei Province in China and also to Far East Russia, the Korean Penisula, and Japan.