Predator searching efficiency increases in response to a variety of environmental cues associated with its prey. The sugary excretion of aphids (honeydew) has been found to act as a prey-associated cue for many aphid natural enemies. In the present study, the honeydew excreted by Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris) was identified as an arrestant and a contact kairomone for young larvae and adults of a common predatory hoverfly, Episyrphus balteatus (De Geer) (Diptera: Syrphidae). First and second instar larvae increased their foraging behaviour in the honeydew-treated area. When plants were sprayed with crude honeydew, the speed of movement of female E. balteatus was significantly higher than in controls, resulting in a longer period of time spent on treated plants and laying eggs. We conclude that the honeydew excreted by A. pisum induces searching behaviour and acts as and arrestant not only for adults but also for young E. balteatus larvae.

In summer 2008, the Orthopteran species Chorthippus biguttulus, Myrmeleotettix maculatus (Caelifera), Decticus verrucivorus and Platycleis albopunctata (Ensifera) were sampled in coastal heathland on the German Baltic Sea island of Hiddensee. The aim of this study was to assess differences in abundance of Orthoptera in three different habitats and determine the importance of habitat mosaics. Distribution patterns varied among species and total abundance of Orthoptera differed significantly among the three habitats. Due to species-specific habitat preferences the Caelifera were most abundant in grey dunes and the Ensifera in dwarf-shrub heath adjoining grey dunes. In conclusion, grey dunes are a suitable habitat for the Caelifera studied, while the Ensifera require a heathland mosaic consisting of both grey dunes and dwarf shrub vegetation.

Cotton mealy bug, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley, a polyphagous pest is a serious threat to cotton production in several parts of Southeast Asia. Lack of an effective predator against this pest has resulted in the use of intensive chemical-based management strategies. Studies were carried out under laboratory conditions to determine the functional response of the adults and nymphs of a generalist reduviid predator, Rhynocoris kumarii Ambrose and Livingston, to different population densities (1, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10) of P. solenopsis. Males, females and nymphs of this reduviid showed a type II functional response. There was no significant difference in the attack rate of male and female R. kumarii; however, prey-handling times of the sexes differed significantly. Of the sexes, males were more aggressive and killed a significantly higher number of third instar mealy bugs than females and had a Holling type II curvilinear functional response. Functional responses of the nymphal instars (third, fourth and fifth) and adults (female and male) of R. kumarii were more pronounced than those of the first and second nymphal instars. Results indicate that the nymphal instars of R. kumarii can be more effective at regulating P. solenepsis than adult reduviids. The findings of this study are important as they demonstrate the considerable potential of R. kumarii for controlling the cotton mealy bug, but now need to be evaluated under greenhouse and field conditions.

Soil cultivation is among the principal factors that determine the structure and properties of soil and also affects the species composition and abundance of soil dwelling arthropods. Carabid beetles are a particularly valuable group of arthropods, the species of which are strongly associated with particular soil environments. This paper discusses the effect of soil tillage on carabid beetle assemblages. The study was carried out near Olsztyn, in northeastern Poland. Six wheat fields, each cultivated using either, conventional or non-inversion, soil tillage, were chosen. Carabid beetles were caught in Barber s traps from early April to the end of October 2011. In total, 7,486 specimens belonging to 55 species of the family Carabidae were captured. The most numerous were Poecilus cupreus, Pterostichus melanarius, Harpalus rufipes, Anchomenus dorsalis and Carabus granulatus. Differences in the abundance of ground beetles and some life history traits were associated with the two soil tillage systems. In particular, ploughing reduced carabid abundance and resulted in the increased activity of medium-sized zoophages and spring breeders.

Abstract. Suction sampling with modified garden leaf-blowers (G-vacs) is a widely used method for research on invertebrates in agricultural and grassland habitats. Approaches vary from sweeping the collecting nozzle across the surface of the vegetation within a known area, applying the nozzle firmly to the ground to delimit a sample area equal to nozzle crosssection, or applying the nozzle repeatedly within a larger open-ended cylinder placed on the ground. These approaches vary in potential for the inadvertent capture of specimens from outside of the sample area as a result of air being drawn into the nozzle from adjacent vegetation. This has never been studied adequately and is defined here for the first time as the Peripheral Suction Effect (PSE). Invertebrate species are likely to differ in susceptibility to PSE and so both sample size and composition could be impacted. This study compares two series of samples of Auchenorrhyncha taken using the same G-vac suction sampler (nozzle area, 0.01 m²) from areas enclosed and unenclosed by an open-ended cylindrical enclosure (area 0.17 m²) intended to prevent PSE. The unenclosed samples contained greater numbers of leafhoppers including Arthaldeus pascuellus, Javesella pellucida and immature Deltocephalinae. Numbers of immature Delphacinae did not differ between enclosed and unenclosed samples. The species composition of the two series of samples was similar, but the proportional representation of immature Delphacinae in unenclosed samples was diluted by the inflated numbers of other taxa that were drawn from the surrounding area. Peripheral suction effects are taxa-specific and therefore have the potential to bias measures of invertebrate community composition. Use of an open-ended cylinder to delimit the sample area is recommended as a simple, inexpensive and effective method of avoiding problems associated with PSE when using a G-vac. The potential for PSE with other models of suction samplers is discussed and questions for further research are identified.

Facultative parthenogenesis is important for mayflies with short alate stages because females are able to reproduce without mating. We studied facultative parthenogenesis in Ephoron eophilum, a mayfly with an extremely short alate stage. We examined the survival rates of embryos from unfertilized eggs, in addition to investigating the number of chromosomes in parthenogenetic offspring and the mode of inheritance by nuclear genetic analyses using Exon-Primed Intron-Crossing markers. The survival rate of thelytokous embryos was 0-70.2% (16.7 ± 26.7%, mean ± S.D.). Sixteen chromosomes were present throughout most of the mitotic metaphase in parthenogenetic offspring, which was similar to the number recorded in diploid females. All parthenogenetic offspring were homozygous in nuclear genetic analyses, despite the presence of heterozygous mothers. These results indicate that E. eophilum has the ability to reproduce via facultative parthenogenesis, producing mostly diploid thelytokous offspring. The restoration of ploidy level occurs by automixis via terminal fusion or gamete duplication, and causes rapid reduction of heterozygosity. However, despite this, significant deviation from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (HWE) was not observed in the studied populations. This is because facultative parthenogenesis in these circumstances normally has little influence on population genetic structuring, even though parthenogenetic embryos exhibit a high survival rate. The lack of influence of parthenogenesis on the population structure of the natural population strongly suggests that parthenogenesis rarely occurs under natural circumstances.

Quametopia gen. n. is established on the basis of recent phylogenetic analysis of taxa formerly assembled under the genus Mumetopia Melander, 1913 to include M. terminalis (Loew, 1863) and two new closely related Nearctic species of Anthomyzidae. The new genus is diagnosed and its phylogenetic relationships discussed. Quametopia terminalis (Loew, 1863) comb. n. is transferred from Mumetopia and redescribed based on revision of the type material (lectotypes of Anthophilina terminalis Loew, 1863 and its synonym Mumetopia nitens Melander, 1913 are designated) and other extensive material. Quametopia clintonia sp. n. and Q. amplistylus sp. n. (both from Canada, USA) are described and relationships of all three Quametopia species discussed. Immature stages of Q. terminalis and Q. clintonia sp. n. obtained by means of adult-to-adult rearing are described (1st- and 2nd-instar larvae for the first time in the family Anthomyzidae) and illustrated. Keys to adults, eggs, larvae and puparia of Quametopia species are presented. Biology (habitat and host-plant associations, life history) of Q. terminalis and Q. clintonia sp. n. are studied in detail and their ecological separation demonstrated. Distribution of all Quametopia species is reviewed.

To study the component and gene expressions of apoptosome in the mitochondrial-associated apoptotic pathway, cytochrome c and Apaf-1 were identified in the diamondback moth (DBM), Plutella xylostella, collected from Fuzhou, China. The full-length cDNA of cytochrome c comprised 873 bp, including a 327 bp ORF encoding a putative protein of 108 amino acids. Two full-length cDNAs of Apaf-1, Apaf-1a and Apaf-1b, were identified. Apaf-1a shared the same region of 5'-UTR (5'-untranslated region) (172 bp) and ORF (4,647 bp) of cDNA, but was 73 bp longer than Apaf-1b in the region of 3'-UTR of the cDNA. The ORF of Apaf-1a and Apaf-1b encoded a putative protein of 1,548 amino acids and shared 100% identity. No significant up-regulation of cytochrome c mRNA expression was found in both the chlorpyrifos-resistant (R_R) and chlorpyrifos-susceptible (S_S) DBM. Compared with the control (at 25°C for 3 h), mRNA transcript levels of Apaf-1a and Apaf-1b increased with the increase of temperature and were significantly higher at 37, 42, 47 and 50°C than at 25 and 33.5°C in R_R DBM. However, the extent of up-regulation expression of Apaf-1a and Apaf-1b in S_S DBM was slight under heat stress except at 42°C. In general, significantly higher increase in the mRNA transcript level of Apaf-1a and Apaf-1b was found in R_R DBM than in S_S DBM. It has been suggested that significantly higher expression of caspase-7 and lower biological fitness occurs in R_R DBM under heat stress, a suggestion confirmed in our previous publications, and a result which might be associated with their higher up-regulation expression of Apaf-1a and Apaf-1b.

Historical and observational data for invasive species are often sparse and incomplete, so molecular genetic markers are increasingly used and have proved to be efficient tools to make inferences about invasion histories. Here, we report the development of 28 polymorphic microsatellite markers in the invasive spotted-wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii (Matsumura, 1931) (Diptera: Drosophilidae) designed from recent genomics resources, and their cross-amplification in closely related Drosophila species of the suzukii subgroup. The markers, located on autosomal chromosomes, were characterized in two distinct invasive populations from France and Hawaii (USA), and in four sister species of the suzukii subgroup. They all showed substantial polymorphism as well as revealing strong genetic differentiation between the two genotyped populations. These markers represent a promising molecular tool for population genetic studies on D. suzukii, more especially in order to reconstruct the pathways and demographic processes of the world-wide invasion in this major insect pest.

Aphidoidea, endosymbiotic bacteria, bacteriocytes, transovarial transmission of endosymbiotic bacteria The ultrastructure, distribution and transovarial transmission of endosymbiotic bacteria in representatives of six aphid families: Eriosomatidae (Pemphigus spyrothecae, Prociphilus fraxini), Anoeciidae [Anoecia (Anoecia) corni], Drepanosiphidae [Mindarus abietinus, Sipha (Rungsia) maydis, Clethrobius comes, Myzocallis (Lineomyzocallis) walshii], Thelaxidae (Thelaxes dryophila), Aphididae (Delphiniobium junackianum, Aphis viburni, Cavariella theobaldi, Macrosiphoniella tanacetaria) and Lachnidae (Schizolachnus pineti, Eulachnus rileyi) were studied at the ultrastructural level. The ovaries of aphids are accompanied by large organs termed bacteriomes that consist of giant cells termed bacteriocytes. The bacteriocyte cytoplasm is tightly packed with endosymbiotic bacteria. Ultrastructural observations have shown that the bacteria Buchnera aphidicola (primary symbiont of aphids) present in various species are characterized by significant differences in both size and organization of their cytoplasm. In the aphids, Prociphilus fraxini, Sipha (Rungsia) maydis, Thelaxes dryophila, Aphis viburni, Cavariella theobaldi, Macrosiphoniella tanacetaria, Eulachnus rileyi and Schizolachnus pineti, in addition to Buchnera aphidicola, secondary endosymbionts are also present. The bacteriocytes containing secondary endosymbionts are less numerous than those with Buchnera. In Eulachnus rileyi (Lachnidae), in addition to primary and secondary endosymbionts, there is a third type of microorganism. In all species examined both the primary and secondary endosymbionts are transovarially transmitted from mother to offspring.

A multi-model ensemble of 15 climate change projections from regional climate models was used to assess the impact of changes in air temperature and precipitation on the phenology of pest species in agriculture. This allowed the bandwidths of expected changes in both meteorological variables to be calculated, forming the basis for assessing and clearly communicating the uncertainties related to the model results. More specifically, we investigated the potential impact of regional climate change effects on the crop invasion of the rape stem weevil, Ceutorhynchus napi Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), in Central Europe (Luxembourg). Multisite and perennial data from field observations were used to choose a biological model from the literature, based on daily maximum air temperature and daily totals of precipitation to describe the migration of C. napi. Based on this statistical relation, we were able to reproduce the observed crop invasion with a mean root mean squared error (RMSE) of 10 days. Daily values of projected maximum air temperatures and daily totals of precipitation of the multi-model ensemble were used as input data for the threshold-based biological model that projects the immigration of this pest species into oilseed rape crops (Brassica napus L.). We examined three thirty-year timespans, the near (2021 to 2050) and the far future (2069 to 2098) and compared them to a reference timespan (1961 to 1990). The projections showed a significant shift of crop invasion to an earlier onset for the near (14 days) and far future (21 days) compared to the reference period. In addition, the timespan in which the potential crop invasion will take place increased from 53 days in the reference timespan to 73 days in the near and 65 days in the far future based on the ensemble median values. It could be expected that a shifting of the immigration period will increase the risk of missing the appropriate time frame for an insecticide application. A depletion of stored nutrient resources, leading to starvation after diapause, can be eliminated for C. napi under climate change effects, as this species hibernates motionless as an adult in earth cocoons until emergence in early springtime driven by temperature.

Ectoedemia argyropeza (Zeller, 1839) possesses a compound eye that exhibits features of both apposition and superposition type eyes. Like apposition eyes, the eye of E. argyropeza lacks a clear-zone, which in superposition eyes separates the distal dioptric from the proximal light-perceiving structures. On the other hand, a tracheal layer around the proximal ends of the rhabdom as well as a well-developed corneal nipple array on the corneal surfaces are features that E. argyropeza shares with the larger moths. Unique, and so far only seen to this extreme degree in any insect, is the hourglass-shape of E. argyropeza's rhabdom, in which two almost equally voluminous regions (one distal, one proximal and formed in both cases by seven rhabdomeres) are connected by a narrow waist-like region of the retinula. An eighth retinula cell, not participating in rhabdom formation, is developed as a basal cell, just above the basement membrane. The eye responds with photomechanical changes to dark/light adaptation, but while the proximal rhabdom moiety slightly expands (as expected) in the dark, the distal rhabdom increases its diameter only upon light-adaptation. Owing to the tandem position of the two rhabdom moities, it is in the light-adapted state that the distally-placed rhabdom is favoured, while the proximal rhabdom plays a more important role at low ambient light levels. With screening pigments withdrawn, tracheal tapetum exposed, and distal rhabdom diameters reduced, the proximal and in the dark enlarged rhabdom is then in a position to capture photons that have entered the eye through not only the ommatidial window above, but other facets as well even in the absence of a clear-zone and superposition optics.

This paper reports the results of a comparative study of the demographic parameters of two phenotypes of Harmonia axyridis Pallas, reared on the black bean aphid, Aphis fabae Scopoli at 25 ± 1°C, 65 ± 2% RH and a photoperiod of 16L : 8D. The values of the intrinsic rate of increase and the finite rate of increase, which were obtained by bootstrapping, were greater for the succinea morph (0.182 females/female/d and 1.200, respectively) than the spectabilis morph (0.168 females/female/d and 1.183, respectively). The net reproductive rates and mean generation times of the two morphs did not differ. The risk of death of the succinea morph was significantly greater. However, there was no significant difference between the estimated survival times. Mean survival times were 95.2 d and 89.3 d for the spectabilis and succinea morphs, respectively.

Many species of lady beetles are highly promiscuous and females mate repeatedly even when not sperm-limited. We quantified female reproductive success and progeny development in Hippodamia convergens using a laboratory experiment designed to test whether (1) male novelty (different males), (2) male mating status (virgin, non-virgin) or (3) opportunities for female mate choice, would increase female fitness compared to a similar number of matings with the same male. Daily access to novel males, regardless of their mating status, increased the egg fertility of females, but not their fecundity. Opportunities for mate choice did not improve any measure of female reproductive success compared to arbitrary assignment of males, but slightly increased reproductive rate, as measured by the number of days to produce 15 clutches. The eggs of monogamous females had the fastest eclosion times, but larval development was fastest for progeny of females polyandrous with non-virgin males, and total developmental time did not differ among treatments. In a second experiment, confinement with two males during oviposition disrupted egg clustering and reduced egg fertility, but not female fecundity, relative to confinement with one male or oviposition in solitude, suggesting a negative impact of male harassment on female fitness in the presence of multiple males. However, the continued presence of two males also improved progeny survival and reduced progeny development time relative to female confinement with one, likely due to summation of paternal effects when females were allowed unlimited matings with both males. These results do not rule out genetic benefits of polyandry, but support the view that enhanced egg fertility is a primary benefit, and suggest more subtle benefits may be obtained in the form of additive paternal effects. The average number of female matings in nature may even exceed that required to obtain such benefits if females use "convenience polyandry" to diminish male harassment.

Each year huge numbers of adults of Coccinella septempunctata occupy aestivo-hibernation sites on Uludaz Hill, Çimen Mountain in the Kahramanmaraş Province of Turkey. In 2008 and 2009 we investigated the phenology, population dynamics, mortality and natural enemies of C. septempunctata arriving on Uludaz Hill. Samples were collected once a month during the snow-free season (April-November) from the top of the hill (2273 m a.s.l.) and at two lower altitudes (1900 m a.s.l. and 2050 m a.s.l.) on the slopes of the hill. In both years C. septempunctata was clearly more abundant at the top of the hill than at the two lower altitudes, which is in accordance with the hypothesis that beetles migrating to dormancy sites are strongly attracted to sites at the highest altitudes. Numbers of C. septempunctata on the hill were low in April and May. The large increase in abundance recorded in June may be attributed to the arrival of a new generation from lowland breeding sites. Emergence of previous year colonizers from their winter shelters is less probable due to the high fat content of the beetles collected in June. Spring dispersal from the hill to lowland areas was not observed. We suppose that this dispersal was either prevented by low temperature or considerably delayed and not synchronized with the period of ladybird breeding activity in the surrounding lowlands. In addition, the C. septempunctata aestivo-hibernating on Uludaz Hill suffered very high mortality, mainly caused by entomopathogenic fungi of the genus Beauveria. The results of our study are discussed in terms of the ecological trap concept.

An inventory of the carabid fauna was carried out in two post-industrial areas in central Poland. The two areas studied were a heap of ash generated by a power station and a colliery spoil heap. In each area sites of different ages were investigated using pitfall traps over an eight year period from 2004 to 2011. At the end of this period each of the youngest sites was as old, or even older, than the next oldest site studied in each area. A pine forest growing on natural soil close to the ash heap was included as a reference study site. Changes were described in terms of the numbers of species and individuals, total biomass, Mean Individual Biomass of Carabidae (MIB) and the most frequently collected species. Indirect and direct gradient analyses were carried out in order to determine the environmental basis of the major pattern in variation and analyse the relationships with current environmental parameters. During the eight years of this study 5032 individuals of 84 species were collected. Numbers of individuals decreased significantly with the age of the sites on the ash heap and the MIB values increased significantly on both heaps. Changes in the most frequently collected species were more pronounced on the spoil heap, the study sites on which covered a time span of 26 years, than on the ash heap, for which the period was only 11 years. Characteristic species differed on the spoil and ash heaps and numbers of species were lower on the spoil heap. Despite differences in speed of succession at the sites studied, there was a tendency for the MIB to increase after about 9 to 16 years. Indirect and direct gradients analyses confirmed that the stage of succession (age of the study sites) was an important factor determining the carabid assemblages at the sites studied. The results of this study are important for the restoration and management of post-industrial areas.

Ophraella communa (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) is an oligophagous herbivorous beetle that feeds on Ambrosia artemisiifolia. It is native to North America, but was accidentally introduced into Japan in 1995 and Europe in 2013. We analyzed partial DNA sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase II gene for O. communa collected from 29 locations in the United States, Japan and Italy. Overall, the results of our analyses indicate that the introduced Japanese populations have lower genetic variation than the native populations. The sequences for the Italian specimens did not share haplotypes with Japanese specimens. These results indicate that the introduced Japanese populations originated from a single introduction, and that the Italian and Japanese populations have different origins.

Nesidiocoris tenuis (Reuter) (Hemiptera: Miridae) is an effective predator of pests of tomato crops and a promising biocontrol agent of Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) in the Mediterranean area. The aim of this study was to determine the numerical response of N. tenuis to different levels of abundance of T. absoluta and its potential for controlling it when infesting tomato crops. The effects of infesting plants with either 0.2 or 2 larvae of T. absoluta and releasing either 2 or 0 adults of N. tenuis per plant were assayed in a complete factorial randomised-block design with 3 repeats in 12 greenhouse compartments in southern Spain. The population dynamics of the moth was similar in all compartments, with and without N. tenuis, but T. absoluta reached a lower absolute peak density in compartments with N. tenuis (29.1 ± 8.2 larvae per leaf) than in those without them (44.5 ± 19.4 larvae per leaf). The peak numbers of larvae of T. absoluta did not differ on the plants initially infested with 0.2 or 2 larvae. Nesidiocoris tenuis reached a maximum of 1.9 ± 0.43 and 3.0 ± 0.4 individuals per leaf in compartments in which low and high numbers of T. absoluta were initially introduced, respectively. The yield of tomatoes was higher in the treatments with N. tenuis than in those without, but the percentage of damaged fruit (> 50%) was similar. The slow numerical response of N. tenuis might have been due, among other things, to the poor establishment of this mirid due to the scarcity of prey. N. tenuis densities of about 0.2 individuals per leaf during the linear population growth phase of T. absoluta (0.5 to 3 larvae per leaf) did not prevent outbreaks.

A comparison was made of the number of species, species diversity and ecological traits of carabid beetle (Coleoptera: Carabidae) assemblages inhabiting Białowieża Primeval Forest (National Park) and adjacent managed Białowieża forest planted following clear-cutting of the primeval forest 80 years ago. Five pitfall traps were set in each plot in the primeval and managed forests in areas that differed in terms of humidity and soil fertility. The first hypothesis tested was that the type of stand (primeval vs. managed) has a greater effect on species diversity and life history traits of carabid assemblages than soil fertility or humidity. The second hypothesis tested was that a similar hierarchy of these factors affects the occurrence of particular species. It was demonstrated that the number of species in the primeval and managed forest sites did not differ significantly, but that mesic stands within these forests were more species-rich than boggy stands. However, the Shannon index for carabids was higher for the primeval stands. More species of carabids were recorded in the boggy primeval forest than boggy managed forest. The number of species was also higher in highly fertile than less fertile stands. These results indicate that the significant differences in the patterns of ecological traits among the assemblages studied depended mainly on humidity. This indicates the managed forest that was planted where a primeval stand was clear felled 80 years ago is a good quality habitat, which is a strong argument for protecting these stands.

In natural systems plant-insect interactions are influenced by several factors. For instance plants could be characterised by the presence of defensive chemicals and herbivores are forced to evolve resistance against them. There are several studies on induced plant defence, which indicate it can mediate competition between herbivorous insects, shaping host plant choice and community structure. Therefore, realized host plant use can be much narrower than the potential one. A laboratory experiment was done to clear up the possible difference in host plant utilization ability of Melitaea phoebe and Melitaea ornata, especially their utilization of Cirsium pannonicum. The caterpillars were reared individually on three different species of host plant (Ci. pannonicum, Ci. arvense and Centaurea scabiosa). The weights of the larvae were measured every second day and the data analysed using ANOVA. M. phoebe caterpillars developed well and all pupated when fed on Cirsium arvense and Centaurea scabiosa, whereas those fed on Cirsium pannonicum developed poorly and 10% died. In contrast, M. ornata developed well on Ci. pannonicum and the other two host plants. Despite this M. ornata was only found on Ci. pannonicum in Hungary.

We studied a population of the Red-winged grasshopper Oedipoda germanica, which is a highly stenotypic and endangered species in Central Europe. The locality studied is completely isolated and at the northern limit of this species distribution (north-west of the Czech Republic). We used capture-mark-recapture in 3 consecutive years (2008-2010). We estimated the total population size using POPAN software to be 136 adults in 2008, 70 in 2009 and 122 in 2010. Estimated daily survival rate (Ф) ranged from 0.950 to 0.987. We constructed linear mixed models to test for apparent survival in relation to temperature data. Temperatures (i.e. mean air temperature and maximum air temperature) were found to have significant effects on survival. The population studied is small, isolated and thus threatened by extinction, as are other O. germanica populations at the northern limit of their distribution. The preservation of indigenous populations in their localities can be achieved by active management, including the removal of shrubs and trees.

The possibility of storing natural enemies at low temperatures is important for the mass production of biological control agents. We evaluated the effect of different periods of cold storage on immature mortality, mummy body mass, lifespan, reproduction and flight capacity of the parasitoid Praon volucre (Haliday). One-day-old mummies of the aphid Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas) containing pre-pupae of P. volucre were stored in a climatic chamber at 5°C and 70 ± 10% RH in the dark for different periods of time (5, 10, 15 and 20 days). The control consisted of mummies kept at 22 ± 1°C, 70 ± 10% RH and a 12 h photophase. Percentage adult emergence, mummy body mass, flight capacity and number of eggs in the ovarioles of P. volucre females decreased with increase in the period of storage, while the longevity of females was only slightly affected. Fat content of mummies, percentage of parasitized aphids and survival of progeny to emergence decreased with increase in the period of storage. Storage of P. volucre pre-pupae for up to 5 days at 5°C did not affect any of the above mentioned parameters. The fact that P. volucre pre-pupae can be stored for 5 days without loss of quality and for 10 days with only a slight loss facilitates the planning of mass production and shipment.

The African genus Figura Ukrainsky, 2006 is revised. A detailed redescription of its morphology is presented. Three new species are described, F. bitalensis sp. n., F. lineata sp. n. and F. ruwenzorica sp. n. All species are illustrated. A key to all species and a map showing the distribution of the genus Figura are provided.

Biological parameters of the woolly whitefly Aleurothrixus floccosus (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) and its parasitoid Cales noacki (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) were determined at 25.0 ± 2.0°C, 50.0 ± 10.0% RH and a photoperiod of 14L : 10D on three different Citrus host plants. The percentage survival of A. floccosus ranged between 40.23 and 44.44%. The highest mortality was recorded in the first nymphal instar with mortalities ranging between 36.36 and 39.39%. On C. aurantifolia the total development time was 39.83 ± 0.68 days and the pre-oviposition, oviposition and post-oviposition periods 2.45, 10.68 and 1.68 days, respectively. Adult longevity was 15.0 days and average fecundity 73.27 ± 9.07 eggs. For C. noacki the pre-oviposition period was 0.8 days, oviposition period 4.38 days and post-oviposition period < 1 day. Adult longevity of C. noacki was 5.18 days and average fecundity 31.25 ± 2.87 eggs. The intrinsic growth rate (r_m ) of C. noacki (0.160) was significantly greater ( p < 0.05) than that of A. floccosus (0.076). The value of the finite rate of growth (λ) was also significantly ( p < 0.05) greater for C. noacki (1.173) than for A. floccosus (1.079). The larger values of r_m and λ recorded for C. noacki under experimental conditions indicate that this aphelinid has the potential to decrease populations of A. floccosus.

Tuta absoluta (Meyrick, 1917) is the main pest of tomato crops in South America. Recently, it was also reported in several countries in Europe and the Middle East. Because of its invasive potential and the lack of information on the biology of T. absoluta, the present study aimed to estimate its thermal requirements and evaluate the effect of temperature on its development, survival, reproduction and longevity. The experiments were carried out at constant temperatures of 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30°C. T. absoluta completed its development at all these temperatures. The thermal requirements were estimated by linear regression; the insects required 416.7 degree-days to complete the cycle from egg to adult, and the lower temperature threshold was estimated to be 8.0°C. The upper temperature threshold estimated for the egg-adult cycle was 37.3°C. The pre-oviposition period was longer at 10°C, but the oviposition period was similar at all the temperatures tested. Fecundity was highest at 20 and 25°C, with averages of 134.8 and 149.1 eggs per female, respectively. The highest percentages of fertile eggs were recorded at 15, 20 and 25°C. At 10 and 30°C, only one egg clutch was laid by T. absoluta. No differences were recorded in the longevity of females and males of T. absoluta. The tomato leaf miner can develop over a wide range of temperatures; however, its reproduction and survival were negatively affected at the extreme constant temperatures tested. The temperature variation recorded in natural environments is suitable for this pest to infest tomato crops.

The male intromittent organ of the seed bug Lygaeus simulans ends in a long, sclerotized structure which is used to transfer sperm during mating. Observations suggest that this structure becomes brittle and is liable to breakage after being artificially exposed to the air for an extended period of time. In this study we investigate the frequency of intromittent organ breakage in L. simulans. We first examined the intromittent organ of a sample of males that mated once, and found that breakage was rare. We hypothesised that breakages are likely to be more frequent if a male is able to mate multiple times, and so we next paired males with a female for 21 days in order to provide the opportunity for multiple mating. Almost a quarter (22.5%) of these males exhibited signs of genital breakage. The point of breakage varied: for six males only the tip of the structure (around 6% of its length) was missing, whereas for three males over 50% of the structure was missing. However we were unable to locate any fragments of male genitalia in the reproductive tracts of any females that came into contact with these males. This suggests that breakages do not necessarily occur during mating itself, but instead probably occur as the intromittent organ is being retracted into the genital capsule following mating. In this species breakage may not significantly reduce male reproductive fitness as sperm transfer may still be possible.

The responses of gnaphosid spiders to an urbanization gradient (urban-suburban-rural areas) were studied using pitfall traps in and near the city of Heraklion, in Crete, Greece, from October 2010 to October 2011. Our results indicate that richness and abundance of species of spiders decreased from the rural area to the center of the city, but not significantly so. Temporal beta diversity was significantly higher in urban areas, which indicates a high temporal variability in species composition of gnaphosid assemblages in the center of the city that takes the form of complementary rather than synchronized phenologies of co-occurring species, as expected in habitats degraded by high levels of disturbance. There was no specific pattern in the body size distribution of the gnaphosids along the urban-rural gradient, and thus the decrease in mean body size with increase in urbanization hypothesis was not supported by our results. However, the species composition recorded in urban areas was very different from that in suburban and rural areas. The percentage of individuals in the catches that were generalist species differed significantly along the gradient. As generalist gnaphosid species made up 72.01% of the total caught in the center of the city, and only 9.53% and 2.07% in suburban and rural areas respectively, our results support the opportunistic species hypothesis. Our analyses indicate that Urozelotes rusticus, a well known synanthropic species recorded for the first time in Greece, is an indicator of high levels of urbanization in Heraklion.

The nutritive quality of aphids, conspecific and heterospecific eggs as food for ladybirds is a controversial issue. If ladybirds find aphids more palatable than eggs then they are more likely to efficiently exploit and be biocontrol agents of aphids. If eggs of conspecific or heterospecific ladybirds are more palatable than aphids these biocontrol agents may either impede aphid pest suppression or become a threat to other species of ladybirds. Thus, prior to formulating predatory guilds of ladybirds the nutritive quality of their eggs compared to that of the target aphid needs to be determined. In this regards, the present study evaluates the nutritive quality of an ad libitum supply of: (i) pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris), (ii) conspecific eggs and (iii) heterospecific eggs as food for Coccinella septempunctata (L.) and Coccinella transversalis Fabricius (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), by determining the stage specific predation and developmental attributes of these two ladybirds reared on these diets. The conversion efficiencies and growth rates of young (first, second and third) larvae of both species of ladybirds were higher than those of fourth instar larvae and the consumption rates of fourth instar were higher than those of young larvae when fed on the three diets. When fed aphids the pre-imaginal development was faster, the consumption rates, conversion efficiencies and growth rates higher, adults bigger and mortality lower than when fed on conspecific eggs. The larvae of C. septempunctata consumed and completed their development when fed eggs of C. transversalis but the first instar larvae of C. transversalis did not consume the eggs of C. septempunctata and died of starvation. The dominance of C. septempunctata over C. transversalis in agricultural fields may be due to it consuming and utilizing aphids more efficiently and as a consequence growing faster and suffering a lower mortality along with its ability to consume and complete its development on eggs of C. transversalis. Thus, both these predators may not continue to coexist as predators of the pea aphid in agricultural fields since C. septempunctata may become a greater threat to C. transversalis in the future.

Environmental factors that regulate egg diapause in the walking-stick insect, Ramulus irregulariterdentatus, were studied. Insects collected in fields at Okayama, Japan soon after hatching in spring were reared under constant laboratory conditions. After adult emergence, their eggs were placed outdoors or incubated under constant laboratory conditions. Most eggs kept at 15 or 20°C hatched more than 100 days after oviposition. At 25°C, however, many eggs remained in diapause throughout the experimental period although a small number hatched slightly earlier than those kept at the lower temperature. The maternal photoperiod affected the egg period at 20 and 25°C; eggs from females reared under short day conditions hatched significantly earlier. A low temperature of 10°C shortens diapause development, whereas 5°C did not have a clear effect on time to hatching. When eggs of females reared under long day conditions were placed outdoors from June to early July, most hatched the next spring. On the other hand, eggs of females reared under short day conditions hatched before winter if they were laid before mid-July. The short day eggs laid in August and September hatched successfully the following April, and there was a positive correlation between the date of oviposition and time of hatching. It is concluded that low temperatures in mid-winter do not terminate diapause development. The results revealed that both maternal regulation of diapause intensity and the rate of diapause development play an important role in maintaining a monovoltine life cycle in Ramulus irregulariterdentatus.

Forest edges are essential to the maintenance of biodiversity at the landscape level. According to the edge effect hypothesis, diversity is higher in an edge than in adjacent areas. We tested the edge effect hypothesis for carabids and staphylinids in an oak forest-forest edge-grassland complex in the Hajdúság Landscape Protection Area (Hungary). The habitat types were as follows: (1) a closed oak forest with shrubs and herbaceous plants, (2) a forest edge with extensive ground vegetation and shrub cover and (3) grassland with dense herbaceous vegetation. We collected data from 60 pitfall traps (2 spatial replicates × 3 habitats × 10 traps). The GLM results showed that the species richness of carabids was higher at the edge of the forest than in the grassland and forest interior; the number of carabid individuals was highest in the grassland. The number of staphylinids and their species richness were significantly lower in the grassland than in the forest edge and interior. The results of principal coordinates analysis showed that the assemblages of both taxa in the forest edge and interior were separated from the assemblage in the grassland area. There were significant characteristic species for the edge habitat, as revealed by the IndVal (indicator species analysis) method. Our findings suggest that forest edges play a vital role in the maintenance of the diversity of carabid and staphylinid assemblages.